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PartoneWhatisPoetryPOETRYmightbedefinedasakindoflanguagethatsaysmoreandsaysitmoreintensivelythandoesordinarylanguage.POETRYisakindofsaying.AinadditiontoBaandbPOETRYisanartforminwhichhumanlanguageisusedforitsaestheticqualitiesinadditionto,orinsteadof,itsnotionalandsemanticcontent.Itconsistsoforalorliteraryworksinwhichlanguageisusedinamannerthatisfeltbyitsuserandaudiencetodifferfromordinaryprose.Itmayusecondensedorcompressedformtoconveyemotionorideastothereadersorlistenersmindorear；itmayalsousedevicessuchasassonanceandrepetitiontoachievemusicalorincantatoryeffects.Poemsfrequentlyrelyfortheireffectonimagery,wordassociationandthemusicalqualitiesofthelanguageused.Becauseofitsnatureofemphasizinglinguisticformratherthanusinglanguagepurelyforitscontent,poetryisnotoriouslydifficultytotranslatefromonelanguageintoanother.TheEagleHeclapsthecragwithcrookedhands；Closetothesuninlonelylands,Ringedwiththeazureworld,hestands.Thewrinkledseabeneathhimcrawls；Hewatchesfromhismountainwalls,Andlikeathunderbolthefalls.Alfred,LordTennyson(1809-1892)Redwheelbarrowsomuchdependsuponaredwheelbarrowglazedwithrainwaterbesidethewhitechickens.WilliamCarlosWilliams(1883-1963)DustofFrostThewayacrowShookdownonmeThedustofsnowFromahemlocktreeHasgivenmyheartAchangeofmoodAndsavedsomepartOfadayIhadrued.RobertFrost(1874-1963)TheCarefulAnglerThecarefulanglerchosehisnookAtmorningbytheliliedbrook,AndallthenoonhisrodhepliedBythatromanticriverside.SoonastheeveninghoursdeclineTranquillyhellreturntodine,And,breathingforthapiouswish,Willcramhisbellywithfulloffish.RobertLouisStevenson(1850-1849)ThereisnoFrigatelikeaBookThereisnofrigatelikeabookTotakeuslandsaway,NoranycourserlikeapageOfprancingpoetry:ThistraversemaythepooresttakeWithoutoppressoftoll；HowfrugalisthechariotThatbearsthehumansoul!EmilyDickinson(1830-1886)ParttwoCharacteristicsofpoetryPoetryaswholeisconcernedwithallkindsofexperiencebeautifulorugly,strangeorcommon,nobleorignoble,actualorimaginary.1.Poetryisthemostcondensedandconcentratedformofliterature,sayingmostinthefewestnumberofwords.2.Poetryisakindofmultidimensionallanguage.-intellectual,sensuous,emotionalandimaginative.AManHeKilledThomasHardy(1840-1928)HadheandIbutmetBysomeoldancientinn,WeshouldhavesatusdowntowetRightmanyanipperkin!Butrangedasinfantry,Andstaringfacetoface,Ishotathimasheatme,Andkilledhiminhisplace.IshothimdeadbecauseBecausehewasmyfoe,Justso:myfoeofcoursehewas；Thatsclearenough；althoughHethoughthedlist,perhaps,Off-hand-like-justasIWasoutofworkhadsoldhistrapsNootherreasonwhy.Yes,quaintandcuriouswaris!YoushootafellowdownYoudtreat,ifmetwhereanybaris,Orhelptohalf-a-crown.TheSickRoseWilliamBlake(1757-1827)ORose,thatartsick!TheinvisiblewormThatfliesinthenightInthehowlingstorm,HasfoundoutthybedOfcrimsonjoy,AndhisdarksecretloveDoesthylifedestroy.TheRoadNotTakenRobertFrostTworoadsdivergedinayellowwood,AndsorryIcouldnottravelbothAndbeonetraveler,longIstoodAndlookeddownasoneasfarasIcouldTowhereitbentintheundergrowth；Thentaketheother,asjustasfair,Andhavingperhapsthebetterclaim,Becauseitwasgrassyandwantedwear；ThoughasforthatthepassingthereHaswornthemreallyaboutthesame,AndboththatmorningequallylayInleavesnostephadtroddenblack.Oh,Ikeptthefirstforanotherday!Yetknowinghowwayleadsontoway,IdoubtedifIshouldevercomeback.IshallbetellingthiswithasighSomewhereagesandageshence:Tworoadsdivergedinawood,andI-Itooktheonelesstraveledby,Andthathasmadeallthedifference.MeetingatnightRobertBrowning(1812-1889)Thegrayseaandthelongblackland:Andtheyellowhalf-moonlargeandlow；AndthestartledlittlewavesthatleapInfieryringletsfromtheirsleep,AsIgainthecovewiththepushingprow,Andquenchitsspeedintheslushysand.Thenamileofwarmsea-scentedbeach；Threefieldsofcrosstillafarmappears；Tapatthepane,thequicksharpscratchAndbluespurtofalightedmatch,Andavoicelessloud,thrositsjoysandfearsThanthetwoheartsbeatingeachtoeach!PartingatmorningRoundthecapeofasuddencamethesea,AndthesunlookedoverthemountainsrimAndstraightwasapathofgoldforhim,And(straightwas)theneedofworldofmenforme.PartThreeHowtoexperiencepoemsHowtoexperiencepoems?1.Readapoemmorethanonce.(Itstobehungonthewallofonesmind)2.Keepadictionarybyyouanduseit.3.Readsoastohearthesoundsofthewordsinyourmind.(Poetryiswrittentobeheard:itsmeaningsareconveyedthroughsoundaswellasthroughprint.Oneshouldreadapoemasslowlyaspossible.Andyoushouldlip-readitatleast.)4.Alwayspaycarefulattentiontowhatthepoemissaying.(Oneshouldmaketheutmostefforttofollowthethoughtcontinuouslyandtograspthefullimplicationsandsuggestions.AndontheveryfirstreadingyoushoulddeterminetheSUBJECTsoftheVERBsandtheANTECEDENTsofthePRONOUNS.)5.Practicereadingpoemsaloud.(a.Readitaffectionately,butnotaffectedly.B.Readingtoofastoffersgreaterdangerthanreadingslowly.Readitslowlyenoughsothateachwordisclearanddistinctandsothatthemeaninghastimetosinkin.YOURORDINARYRATEOFREADINGWILLPROBABLYBETOOFAST.C.Readapoemsothattherhythmicalpatternisfeltbutnotexaggerated.)6.Askourselvesthefollowingquestionssoastoaidusintheunderstandingofapoem.a.Whoisthespeakerandwhatistheoccasion?b.Whatisthecentralpurposeofthepoem?c.Bywhatmeansisthatpurposeachieved?d.Whatprovokesthesaying?7.Whilereadingapoem,alwaysmaintaintheutmostmentalalertness.8.Tryyourutmosttoaccumulateyourexperienceoflifeandtheworld,directlyorindirectly,suchasbyreading,watchingTVandseeingfilm.WilliamShakespeare.15641616SonnetXVIII.“ShallIcomparetheetoasummersday?”SHALLI|compare|theeto|asu|mmersday?aThouart|morelove|lyand|moretem|perate:bRoughwinds|doshake|thedar|lingbuds|ofMay,aAndsu|mmerslease|hathall|tooshort|adate:bSometime|toohot|theeye|ofhea|venshines,c5Andoftenishisgoldcomplexiondimmd；dAndeveryfairfromfairsometimedeclines,cBychance,ornatureschangingcourseuntrimmd；dButthyeternalsummershallnotfade,eNorlosepossessionofthatfairthouowst,f10Norshalldeathbragthouwanderstinhisshade,eWhenineternallinestotimethougrowst；fSolongasmencanbreathe,oreyescansee,gSolonglivesthis,andthisgiveslifetothee.gTHOMASGRAY1716-1771465ElegywritteninaCountryChurchyardTHECurfewtollstheknellofpartingday,Thelowingherdwindslowlyoerthelea,Theplowmanhomewardplodshiswearyway,Andleavestheworldtodarknessandtome.Nowfadestheglimmeringlandscapeonthesight,Andalltheairasolemnstillnessholds,Savewherethebeetlewheelshisdroningflight,Anddrowsytinklingslullthedistantfolds；Savethatfromyonderivy-mantledtowrThemopingowldoestothemooncomplainOfsuchas,wandringnearhersecretbowr,Molestherancientsolitaryreign.Beneaththoseruggedelms,thatyew-treesshade,Whereheavestheturfinmanyamouldringheap,Eachinhisnarrowcellforeverlaid,TherudeForefathersofthehamletsleep.Thebreezycallofincense-breathingMorn,Theswallowtwittringfromthestraw-builtshed,Thecocksshrillclarion,ortheechoinghorn,Nomoreshallrousethemfromtheirlowlybed.Forthemnomoretheblazinghearthshallburn,Orbusyhousewifeplyhereveningcare:Nochildrenruntolisptheirsiresreturn,Orclimbhiskneestheenviedkisstoshare.Oftdidtheharvesttotheirsickleyield,Theirfurrowoftthestubbornglebehasbroke:Howjocunddidtheydrivetheirteamafield!Howbowdthewoodsbeneaththeirsturdystroke!LetnotAmbitionmocktheirusefultoil,Theirhomelyjoys,anddestinyobscure；NorGrandeurhearwithadisdainfulsmileTheshortandsimpleannalsofthepoor.Theboastofheraldry,thepompofpowr,Andallthatbeauty,allthatwealtheergave,Awaitsalikethinevitablehour:Thepathsofgloryleadbuttothegrave.Noryou,yeProud,imputetoThesethefault,IfMemoryoertheirTombnoTrophiesraise,Wherethroughthelong-drawnaisleandfrettedvaultThepealinganthemswellsthenoteofpraise.CanstoriedurnoranimatedbustBacktoitsmansioncallthefleetingbreath?CanHonoursvoiceprovokethesilentdust,OrFlattrysoothethedullcoldearofdeath?PerhapsinthisneglectedspotislaidSomeheartoncepregnantwithcelestialfire；Hands,thattherodofempiremighthaveswayd,Orwakedtoecstasythelivinglyre.ButKnowledgetotheireyesheramplepageRichwiththespoilsoftimedidneerunroll；ChillPenuryrepressdtheirnoblerage,Andfrozethegenialcurrentofthesoul.FullmanyagemofpurestraysereneThedarkunfathomdcavesofoceanbear:Fullmanyaflowerisborntoblushunseen,Andwasteitssweetnessonthedesertair.SomevillageHampdenthatwithdauntlessbreastThelittletyrantofhisfieldswithstood,SomemuteingloriousMilton,heremayrest,SomeCromwellguiltlessofhiscountrysblood.Thapplauseoflistningsenatestocommand,Thethreatsofpainandruintodespise,Toscatterplentyoerasmilingland,Andreadtheirhistoryinanationseyes,Theirlotforbade:norcircumscribedaloneTheirgrowingvirtues,buttheircrimesconfined；Forbadetowadethroughslaughtertoathrone,Andshutthegatesofmercyonmankind,Thestrugglingpangsofconscioustruthtohide,Toquenchtheblushesofingenuousshame,OrheaptheshrineofLuxuryandPrideWithincensekindledattheMusesflame.FarfromthemaddingcrowdsignoblestrifeTheirsoberwishesneverlearndtostray；AlongthecoolsequesterdvaleoflifeTheykeptthenoiselesstenoroftheirway.YetevnthesebonesfrominsulttoprotectSomefrailmemorialstillerectednigh,Withuncouthrhymesandshapelesssculpturedeckd,Imploresthepassingtributeofasigh.Theirname,theiryears,speltbythunletterdmuse,Theplaceoffameandelegysupply:Andmanyaholytextaroundshestrews,Thatteachtherusticmoralisttodie.Forwho,todumbForgetfulnessaprey,Thispleasinganxiousbeingeerresignd,Leftthewarmprecinctsofthecheerfulday,Norcastonelonginglingringlookbehind?Onsomefondbreastthepartingsoulrelies,Somepiousdropstheclosingeyerequires；EenfromthetombthevoiceofNaturecries,EeninourAsheslivetheirwontedFires.Forthee,who,mindfulofthunhonourddead,Dostintheselinestheirartlesstalerelate；Ifchance,bylonelycontemplationled,Somekindredspiritshallinquirethyfate,Haplysomehoary-headedSwainmaysay,OfthaveweseenhimatthepeepofdawnBrushingwithhastystepsthedewsawayTomeetthesunupontheuplandlawn.ThereatthefootofyondernoddingbeechThatwreathesitsoldfantasticrootssohigh,Hislistlesslengthatnoontidewouldhestretch,Andporeuponthebrookthatbabblesby.Hardbyyonwood,nowsmilingasinscorn,Muttringhiswaywardfancieshewouldrove,Nowdrooping,woefulwan,likeoneforlorn,Orcrazedwithcare,orcrossdinhopelesslove.OnemornImissdhimonthecustomdhill,Alongtheheathandnearhisfavritetree；Anothercame,noryetbesidetherill,Norupthelawn,noratthewoodwashe；ThenextwithdirgesdueinsadarraySlowthroughthechurch-waypathwesawhimborne.Approachandread(forthoucanstread)thelayGravedonthestonebeneathyonagedthorn.PartFourDramaticSituationballadinliterature,short,narrativepoemusuallyrelatingasingle,dramaticevent.Twoformsoftheballadareoftendistinguishedthefolkballad,datingfromaboutthe12thcent.,andtheliteraryballad,datingfromthelate18thcent.1TheFolkBalladTheanonymousfolkballad(orpopularballad),wascomposedtobesung.Itwaspassedalongorallyfromsingertosinger,fromgenerationtogeneration,andfromoneregiontoanother.Duringthisprogressionaparticularballadwouldundergomanychangesinbothwordsandtune.ThemedievalorElizabethanballadthatappearsinprinttodayisprobablyonlyoneversionofmanyvariantforms.2Primarilybasedonanolderlegendorromance,thistypeofballadisusuallyashort,simplesongthattellsadramaticstorythroughdialogueandaction,brieflyalludingtowhathasgonebeforeanddevotinglittleattentiontodepthofcharacter,setting,ormoralcommentary.Itusessimplelanguage,aneconomyofwords,dramaticcontrasts,epithets,setphrases,andfrequentlyastockrefrain.Thefamiliarstanzaformisfourlines,withfourorthreestressesalternatingandwiththesecondandfourthlinesrhyming.3Morethan300EnglishandScottishfolkballads,datingfromthe12thtothe16thcent.,areextant.Fivemajorclassesoftheballadcanbedistinguishedthehistorical,suchas“Otterburn”and“TheBonnyEarloMoray”；theromantic,suchas“BarbaraAllan”and“TheDouglasTragedy”；thesupernatural,suchas“TheWifeofUshersWell”；thenautical,suchas“HenryMartin”；andthedeedsoffolkheroes,suchastheRobinHoodcycle.5TheLiteraryBalladTheliteraryballadisanarrativepoemcreatedbyapoetinimitationoftheoldanonymousfolkballad.Usuallytheliteraryballadismoreelaborateandcomplex；thepoetmayretainonlysomeofthedevicesandconventionsoftheolderversenarrative.LiteraryballadswerequitepopularinEnglandduringthe19thcent.ExamplesoftheformarefoundinKeatss“LaBelleDamesansMerci,”Coleridges“TheRimeoftheAncientMariner,”andOscarWildes“TheBalladofReadingGaol.”Inmusicaballadreferstoasimple,oftensentimental,song,notusuallyafolksong.ELEGYinGreekandRomanpoetry,apoemwritteninelegiacverse(i.e.,coupletsconsistingofahexameterlinefollowedbyapentameterline).Theformdatesbackto7thcent.B.C.inGreeceandpoetssuchasArchilochus,Mimnermus,andTytraeus.LatertakenupanddevelopedinRomanpoetry,itwaswidelyusedbyCatullus,Ovid,andotherLatinpoets.InEnglishpoetry,sincethe16thcent.,thetermelegydesignatesareflectivepoemoflamentationorregret,withnosetmetricalform,generallyofmelancholytone,oftenondeath.Theelegycanmournoneperson,suchasWaltWhitmans“WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloomd”onthedeathofAbrahamLincoln,oritcanmournhumanityingeneral,asinThomasGrays“ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard.”Inthepastoralelegy,modeledontheGreekpoetsTheocritusandBion,thesubjectandfriendsaredepictedasnymphsandshepherdsinhabitingapastoralworldinclassicaltimes.FamouspastoralelegiesareMiltons“Lycidas,”onEdwardKing；Shelleys“Adonais,”onJohnKeats；andMatthewArnolds“Thyrsis,”onArthurHughClough.HYMNsongofpraise,devotion,orthanksgiving,especiallyofareligiouscharacter1LYRICinancientGreece,apoemaccompaniedbyamusicalinstrument,usuallyalyre.Althoughthewordisstilloftenusedtorefertothesonglikequalityinpoetry,itismoregenerallyusedtorefertoanyshortpoemthatexpressesapersonalemotion,beitasonnet,ode,song,orelegy.InearlyGreekpoetryadistinctionwasmadebetweenthechoralsongandthemonodysungbyanindividual.ThemonodywasdevelopedbySapphoandAlcaeusinthe6thcent.B.C.,thechorallyricbyPindarlater.Latinlyricswerewritteninthe1stcent.B.C.byCatullusandHorace.IntheMiddleAgesthelyricformwascommoninChristianhymns,infolksongs,andinthesongsoftroubadours.IntheRenaissanceandlater,lyricpoetryachieveditsmostfinishedforminthesonnetsofPetrarch,Shakespeare,Spencer,andSidneyandintheshortpoemsofRonsard,BenJonson,JohnDonne,Herrick,andMilton.Theromanticpoetsemphasizedtheexpressionofpersonalemotionandwroteinnumerablelyrics.AmongthebestarethoseofRobertBurns,Blake,Wordsworth,Shelley,Keats,Lamartine,Hugo,Goethe,Heine,andLeopardi.Americanlyricpoetsofthe19thcent.includeEmerson,Whitman,Longfellow,Lanier,andEmilyDickinson.Amonglyricpoetsofthe20thcent.areW.B.Yeats,A.E.Housman,RainerMariaRilke,FedericoGarcaLorca,W.H.Auden,StephenSpender,EdnaSt.VincentMillay,WallaceStevens,ElinorWylie,DylanThomas,andRobertLowell.ODEelaborateandstatelylyricpoemofsomelength.TheodedatesbacktotheGreekchoralsongsthatweresunganddancedatpubliceventsandcelebrations.TheGreekodesofPindar,whichweremodeledonthechoralodesofGreekdrama,werepoemsofpraiseorglorification.Theywerearrangedinstanzaspatternedinsetsofthreeastropheandanantistrophe,whichhadanidenticalmetricalscheme,andanepode,whichhadastructureofitsown.TheodeoftheRomanpoetsHoraceandCatullusemployedthesimplerandmorepersonallyricformofSappho,Anacreon,andAlcaeus(seelyric).TheodeinlaterEuropeanliteraturewasconditionedbyboththePindaricandtheHoratianforms.DuringtheRenaissancetheodewasrevivedinItalybyGabrielloChiabreraandinFrancemostsuccessfullybyRonsard.RonsardimitatedPindarinodesonpubliceventsandHoraceinmorepersonalodes.Horatianodesalsoinfluencedthe17th-centuryEnglishpoets,especiallyBenJonson,RobertHerrick,andAndrewMarvell.Miltonsode“OntheMorningofChristsNativity”(1629)showstheinfluenceofPindar,asdothepoemswrittenforpublicoccasionsbyhiscontemporaryAbrahamCowley.However,theCowleyan(orirregular)ode,originatedbyCowley,disregardedthecomplicatedmetricalandstanzaicstructureofthePindaricformandemployedfreelyalteringstanzasandvaryinglines.Ingeneraltheodesofthe19th-centuryromanticpoetsKeats,Shelley,ColeridgeandofsuchlaterpoetsasSwinburneandHopkinstendtobemuchfreerinformandsubjectmatterthantheclassicalode.Notableexamplesofthethreekindsofodeare:Pindaricode,e.g.,ThomasGrays“TheProgressofPoesy”；Horatianode,e.g.,Keatss“ToAutumn”；Cowleyanode,e.g.,Wordsworths“Ode:IntimationsofImmortality.”Althoughtheodehasbeenseldomusedinthe20thcent.,AllenTatein“OdeontheConfederateDead”andWallaceStevensin“TheIdeaofOrderatKeyWest”madesuccessful,andhighlypersonal,useoftheform.pastoralliteraryworkinwhichtheshepherdslifeispresentedinaconventionalizedmanner.Inthisconventionthepurityandsimplicityofshepherdlifeiscontrastedwiththecorruptionandartificialityofthecourtorthecity.Thepastoralisfoundinpoetry,drama,andfiction,andmanysubjects,suchaslove,death,religion,andpolitics,havebeenpresentedinpastoralsettings.1InEnglishliteraturethepastoralisafamiliarfeatureofRenaissancepoetry.SirPhilipSidneysArcadia(1590)isanepicstoryinpastoraldress,andinTheShepheardesCalender(1579)EdmundSpenserusedthepastoralasavehicleforpoliticalandreligiousdis