外文文献-Children Left Behind How to Mitigate the Effects and Facilitate Emotional and Psychosocial Developme

ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090ChildrenLeftBehind:HowtoMitigatetheEffectsandFacilitateEmotionalandPsychosocialDevelopmentMarthaGivaudanMexicanInstituteofFamilyandPopulationResearchSusanPickNationalUniversityofMexicoSupportivecommunitynetworkscandiminishthenegativeeffectsofparentalmigrationThemigrationofparentsaffectstheirchildreninmanyways.Often,parentsmigrateatastageintheirchildrensdevelopmentwhentheyareespeciallyinneedSimilarly,ifmenmigrate,womenmayberequiredtospendmoretimeengagedinpaidwork,whichreducesthetimemothershavetospendwiththeirchildren.Otherpotentialcon-ofastableenvironment.Indeed,parentalsequencesforchildrenleftbehindwhenparentsmigrationcanaffectachildspovertylevelmigrateincludeinadequatefamilybonding,andsenseofabandonment.Additionally,par-inconsistenciesinparentalroles,emotionalticularlywhenmothersmigrate,theiroldervulnerability,andexposuretoviolence.childrenmayhavetospendmoretimedoingInaddition,parentalmigrationcanleadtohouseworkandtakingcareofotherfamilydifcultieswithculturalidentity,giventhefre-membersandthereforemaypaylessattentionquentabsenceofonesformerculturalgures.toschoolactivities.ThislackofidentitycanleadtocontradictionsThisprogramhasbeensupportedbyBernardVanLeerFoundation(MX-2008-066/MB1411),towhomwewouldliketoexpressourappreciation.CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoSusanPick,MexicanInstituteofFamilyandPopulationResearch(IMIFAP-YoquieroYopuedo),MlagaNorte25,InsurgentesMixcoac,MxicoD.F.03920,Mexico.ElectronicmailmaybesenttosusanIMIFAP.org.mx.0145-2134/$seefrontmatter2013ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved./10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.019ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090inessentialsocialnormsandcustoms,includ-familiescanundertakecompensatoryadjust-ingthosehavingtodowithhealthandnutritionmentsthroughcommunitynetworksandthepractices.Infact,theremaybeconfusionandsupportofcaregiverseitherfriendsorevenabreakdownofmoralvalues,asisthecaseextendedfamilymemberswhodonotnor-whenchildrendevelopthe(mis)perceptionthatmallyresidewiththechildren.eventhoughkeymembersoftheirfamilyareUNICEFhasrecommendedthatpoliciesaway,theyhaveadvantagesovertheirpeersandprogramsbedevelopedtoensurethatbecausetheremittancestheyreceive.childrenwholiveunderconditionsofrisk,Ashighlightedina2009UnitedNationsabuse,orabandonmentreceiveproperattentionChildrensFund(UNICEF)reportontheeffectinordertomitigatethepsychosocialeffectsofmigrationonchildrenintheCaribbean,chil-ofparentalmigration.Therecommendationsdrenwhoareleftinthecareofotherrelativesincludedgearingsuchpoliciesandprograms(e.g.,uncles,grandparents)orneighborsmaytowardimprovingmedium-andlong-termbemorelikelytosufferabuse,neglect,anddevelopmentalprospectsforthesefamiliesexploitation.Sometimeschildrenleftbehindandchildren.Itwasalsorecommendedthatareconsideredabandonedbecausetheircare-greaterattentionbegiventothedevelop-giverseitherlackinterestintheirdevelopmentment,instrumentation,prehensivepoliciesandprograms,andinThislabelcanresultinbullyinginschoolandparticular,thatattentionbegiventopsychoso-increasedgrief,anxiety,anger,resentment,andcialimpactofmigrationonchildren.hopelessness.UNICEFrecommendedthattrainingpro-Inbothruralandurbancontexts,parentalgramsbedevelopedtopreparelocalstaffmigrationalsoaffectscommunitynetworks.torecognizetraitsassociatedwiththepsy-Moralconictsdevelopbetweenthosewhochosocialeffectsofparentalmigration.Finally,approveofandsupportmigrationasanoptiontherecommendationsencouragedstrengthen-forprovidingbetterfuturesforchildrenandingacademicresearchandpolicyanalysisinindividualswhoseemigrationasabandonmentordertofullyunderstandhowparentsmigra-ofthecommunityandhavingnegativeconse-tionaffectschildrenleftbehind.quencesforchildren.ThesedifferencesfurtherUnderlyingtheserecommendationsisanthedisintegrationofthebondsandcollabora-awarenessoftheneedtopreventchildrenfromtionrequiredforcommunitydevelopmentandbeinginsituationsofdefactoabandonmentorforbuildingsystemsofcomprehensivesupportfromexperiencingdecreasedlifechancesandforchildren.opportunitybecauseofparentalabsence.ResearchconductedinSoutheastAsiabyElspethGrahamandLucyJordanfoundcare-givermentalhealthstatustobeakeyandconsistentlyimportantpredictorforcompre-hensivewell-beinganddevelopmentamongchildrenleftbehindbecauseofparentalmigra-TheMexicanContext,IMIFAP(YoquieroYopuedo),andChildrenLeftBehindtion.DatahavesuggestedthatthenegativeeffectsofmigrationonchildsafetyandInMexico,migrationisanoptionemployeddevelopmentcanbestronglydiminishedifbyindividualstoimprovelifechancesfor1081ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090themselvesandtheirfamilies.Itiscommonforcalsupportofsociallyresponsiblecompanies,familymembers(particularlyfathers,althoughgovernments,andcommunityinstitutionsinincreasinglymothersaswell)tomigrateinordertoimplementtheprogramsandevaluatesearchofworkandtosendmoneybacktotheirimpactsotheycanbefurtherappliedandMexicotosupportthefamily.Indeed,thescaled-up.EightofIMIFAPs(YoquieroYoInter-AmericanDevelopmentBankreportedpuedo)programshavebeenadoptedoradaptedin2011thatofallthecountriesinLatinfornationalimplementation.American,MexicoistheabsoluteleaderinToaddresstherangeofpersonalandremittancevolume,withatotalof$21.8billioncommunityissuesidentiedviadiagnosticreceivedin2005.researchincommunities,IMIFAP(YoquieroThemostcommondestinationcountryistheYopuedo)hasdevelopedabroadlifeskillsUnitedStates.In2000,theMexicanimmigranttrainingprogram(e.g.,cognitive-problemsolv-populationintheUnitedStatesequalednearlying,expressionandmanagementofemotions,8%ofthetotalpopulationofMexico.Manyofsocial-conictresolution).Theprogramfos-thechildrenofparentswhohavemigratedseeterstheacquisitionofknowledgerelatedtofollowingasimilarpathastheironlyhopefortheproblemstobesolvedandthepsychoso-economicsecurity;thus,theyplantomigratecialbarrierstobeovercome(e.g.,shame,guilt,assoonastheycaninordertobewiththeirprejudice,fears,resentment).Ingeneral,theparentsandachievetheAmericanDgramwasdesignedtostimulatelong-termGiventhesubstantialnumberofchildrenthatchangesinpeoplesbehavior,wellbeing,iden-havebeenleftbehindasaresultofparentaltity,andoutlookonlife.ItisexpectedthatthemigrationandinrecognitionofUNICEFsstrengtheningofthecaregiverchildrelation-recommendations,theMexicanInstituteofshipandacquisitionofknowledgeaboutchildFamilyandPopulationResearchIWantto,developmentandneedswillincreasethelike-ICan(IMIFAP;InstitutoMexicanodeInvesti-lihoodthatparticipatingchildrenwillgrowupgacinndeFamiliayPoblacinYoQuiero,inahealthyandaffectiveenvironment.YoPuedo)developedamodelforaddressingBasedonthisapproach,IMIFAP(Yoquierotheneedsofchildren,theircaregivers,andcom-Yopuedo)staffdesignedCommunityChildmunitiesaffectedbymigration.ThemissionDevelopmentCenters(CCDCs).CCDCshaveofIMIFAP(YoquieroYopuedo),anon-twomaincomponents.Therstcomponentgovernmentalorganization(NGO)withalmostinvolvesthecreationofcommunitysup-30yearsofexperienceworkinginempower-portnetworkstohelpchildrenreachtheiringmarginalizedandvulnerableindividuals,potential.Thistaskisaccomplishedthroughisto“liberateindividualpotentialforsocialtheconstructionofaresponsiveenvironmentdevelopment.”Thus,theorganizationworksthatprotectschildrenfromneglectandinap-withmarginalizedandvulnerablepopulationspropriatedisapprovalandpunishmentandinMexicointheareasofeducation,health,helpsimproveschoolperformanceandpreventcitizenship,andproductivitytoempowerindi-schooldropout.Thesecondcomponentcon-vidualstoimprovetheirbehaviorsinrelationsistsofthedevelopment,implementation,andtotheirwellbeing.evaluationofatrainingprogramforvolunteerAsanNGO,IMIFAP(YoquieroYopuedo)communitypromoters/caregiversofchildrenhastheabilitytolinkthenancialandpoliti-frombirthto12yearsofage.1082ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090Thusfar,themodel,whichfocusesonmaterials(e.g.,toysandgames)formitigatingthenegativeeffectsofparentalbabies;andworkbooksforchildrenwithmigration,hasbeensuccessfullyimplementedfun-learningactivitiesrelatedtolifeskills,andhasachievedcommunityownershipinruralcivic,andethicseducationandhealth.areasoftwostates(HidalgoandChiapas)inThecurriculumseekstobuildonskills,Mexico.Theprogramaddresses(a)childrensincreaseknowledgeamongcaregivers,andcaregiversreactionstothechangesinandmodeladultchildinteraction.Withincommunicationwithparentswhomigrated,eachsubgroup,staffseekstoimplement(b)therelationshipbetweenchildrenandtheirprogramsfromagenderequalityperspec-newcaregivers,(c)preventionofmaltreatment,tive.Forexample,staffensuresthatboth(d)expressionoffeelings,suchasangerandgendersparticipateinthesameactivities,grief,(e)theimportanceofself-knowledgeandareallowedtousethosetoystheyareself-esteem,and(f)strategiesforfulllmentinterestedinindependentlyofgender,andofchildrensdevelopmental,nutritional,emo-sensitizethecaregiversandpromotersontional,andsocialneeds.howtopreventtheapplicationofsexistTheprogrammodelisimplementedinsteps,languageandtraditionalroleexpectations.whicharecarriedoutjointlybyIMIFAP(Yo(4)TheprogramcontentisorganizedbyquieroYopuedo)staffandvolunteerswithinage.Contentisdividedinthefollowingthecommunity.Thesevolunteersarehighlymanner:Level1.Babies(vesubgroups:involvedintheprogramandhavealeader-02months;35months;611months;shippositionbothinthecommunityandinthe1223months;2436months),Levelprogram.Thestepsareasfollows:2.PreschoolChildren(graduatedin3(1)Staffmembersorganizemeetingswithauthoritiesandcommunityleaderstosen-sitizethemtotheissuesandensuretheircommitmentandinterestintheprogram.(2)StaffmembersprepareaphysicalspaceinthecommunitytoestablishtheCCDCs.Physicalspaces,suchasclassroomsinschoolsnotinuseduringtheafternoons,areadaptedtoreceivebabiesandchildrenwiththeircaregiversandforgivingtalksforcaretakers,authorities,andothermembersofthecommunityontopicsofinteresttothecommunityandfamilies.(3)Speciccontents,activities,toys,didacticmaterials,andevaluationinstrumentsaredevelopedaccordingtoagegroupsandspecicneedsoftheparticipants.Theseitemsincludeacomprehensiveandeasy-to-usepromotersmanual;didacticlevels),andLevel3.SchoolChildren(graduatedin6grades).Theprogramconsistsof12participatorysessionsforeachagesubgroupatLevel1,20sessionspergradeatpreschoollevel,and25sessionspergradeatschoollevel.Eachsessionlastsapproximately50minandisconductedonceaweekfollowingascheduleestablishedwiththeparticipants.(5)Promotersarerecruited.Oncethephysi-calspaceforthecenterhasbeensetup,disseminationofinformationabouttheneedforvolunteerpromotersiscarriedoutinthecentersandinpublicplacessuchasmarkets,churches,andplazas.Selectionsaremadebasedoninterviewswhichtakeintoaccountcommitmenttothecommu-nity,experiencecollaboratingwithschoolandhealthauthorities,andmotivation;therearenoschoolingrequirements.1083ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090(6)Staffmembersholdtrainingworkshopsforcommunitypromoters.Communitylead-ers,healthpromoters,andteachersreceiveaninvitationtoattenda40-hr.trainingtobecomecertiedpromoters.Duringthistraining,promotersalsolearnaboutprogramimplementationandlogistics.(7)Programimplementationbegins.Thecurriculumistaughtsequentiallybythecertiedpromoters.Caregiverchild(ren)dyadsattendtheweeklysessionsuntiltheprogramiscomplete.Activitiesforpreschoolandschoolchildrenarecarriedoutafterschoolhours,inordertoinvolvecaregiversinschoolhomeworkandlifeskillspromotion.(8)Staffandpromotersmakehomevisitstocaregivers.Bythisstage,promotershavegenerallylearnedtorecognizealarmsignsofchildabuseandhealthordevelopmentproblemsinordertodetectcasesinwhichspecializedattentionisrequired.Thesecasesarereferredtothecommunityhealthcenterswiththesupportoflocalauthorities.(9)Ongoingopportunitiesforengagementareprovided.Thesecontinuouseducationactivitiescreatespacefordialogueandreection.ActivitiesincludecommunityfairsandlinkswithotherIMIFAP(YoquieroYopuedo)programsinotherelds,suchasmicroenterprisedevelopment.(10)Evaluationsareconducted.Asampleofchildrenisevaluatedeachyearandresultsarecomparedwithasampleofchildrenwhowillattendtheprograminthefollow-ingyear(i.e.,controlgroup).Quantitativeandqualitativeinstrumentsareapplied.Allpromotersparticipateintheevaluationbeforeandaftertheworkshops.Analysesaredonepairingchildrenbyage.KeyComponentsoftheProgramTheConceptualFrameworkStep6focusesontheactualimplementationoftheprogram.TheconceptualframeworkonFig.1.FrEE(FrameworkforEnablingIntriniscEmpowerment).Adaptedfrom“BreakingthePovertyCycle:TheHumanBasisforSustainableDevelopment”byS.PickandJ.Sirkin,2010,OxfordUniversityPress,p.84.1084ChildAbuse&Neglect37(2013)10801090whichIMIFAP(YoquieroYopuedo)basesitssothecommunityalreadyknewandtrustedworkiscalledFrEE(FrameworkforEnablingstaff.ThecommunitywasfamiliarwiththeIntrinsicEmpowerment;seeFig.1).IntakingFrEEandhadseenitssuccess.Thus,theywereacomprehensiveapproachtochildrenscaremotivatedtoparticipateaspromoters.Manyincommunity,theprogramincludespartici-prospectivepromoterswerethemselvesparentspatoryandexperientialworkshops;activitiesandthusweremotivatedtoparticipatebecausethatfosterlifeskillsdevelopment;specializedtheywantedtolearnmoreaboutchildrenandlearninginchilddevelopment,nutrition,andtoolstohelpthemsucceed.childabuseprevention;andeffortsaimedatThepromotersgenerallyworkedhalftimereducingpsychosocialbarriers.Therefore,onasteachers(81%),healthpromoters(9%),oranindividualbasis,participants(i.e.,promo-communityleaders(10%).Mostofthemwereters,caregivers,andchildren)thinkaboutandwomenandalsomothers.Theaverageagesharetheirpersonalexperiencesinanefforttowas40years.IntheStateofHidalgo,257munities.ParticipationhasbeenconstantTheefcacyofthisstrategyisbasedonover3years,withonecommunityexperiencingthewayeachparticipantidenties,establishes,adropoutrateof6%andanotherexperiencinganddevelopschangeatapersonallevelandanincreasedparticipationrateof5%.assumesresponsibilityandempowermenttoPromotersarecriticaltochildrensdevelop-impacttheirfamiliesandcommunities.Ade-mentbecausetheycanteachcaregivershowtoquateskills,knowledge,claricationofbeliefs,meetchildrensbasicphysical,emotional,andandareductionofpsychosocialbarriersallowdevelopmentalneeds.Promotersareindivid-thepersontoreactoptimallyaccordingtoualswhovoluntarilypromotetheprogramandhis/hernewneeds,norms,anddesiredresults.teachcaretakershowtoprovidethechildrenThisprocessisaculturallyappropriatewithstimulation,skills,andhealthynutritionalpracticebecauseitisconstruct