Chapter4跨商务文化交际.ppt

Chapter 4 Cultural Values,We are learning English, we are adopting ourselves to a new culture, we are learning a new cultural software. With the knowledge we have learned, we can have a better communication. But all of these do not necessarily lead to successful communication, as we often respond or react by doing more of what we did in the past. A kind preparation or pre-knowledge can only work in a certain way. Most often We work in a cultural way of our own.,1. Cultural differences in values,A group of Chinese professors were visiting Oxford University. They were served with western food for the three meals a day. About one week later, some refused to take such meals and chose to cook Chinese food for themselves.,Most of the Oxford University professors or doctors lecture in their way. They sit on the desk now and then for their lectures.,They are just being themselves. They sometimes do not have a fixed topic and just talk and talk. They even do not mind whether their students follow them or not.,People are sitting or lying on the grass for leisure in public.,Why are the Chinese and the westerners so different in so many ways? In food, time, talking, sex, friendship, nature, children, family, work, education, and social relationships, almost everything. The key is their different attitudes towards values. The culture they have enjoyed all their life.,Introductory Case,Now study the following proverbs and decide what value(s) they represent. 1. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 2. The early bird catches the worm. 3. God helps those who help themselves. 4. Time is money. 5. My home is my castle. 6. Think three times before you take action. 7. Modesty makes you progress; conceitedness makes you lag behind.,Proverbs value explanation: Value: the individual Origin: England Value: action Origin: England Value: self-help Origin: Greece Value: efficiency Origin: USA Value: privacy Origin: England Value: caution Origin: China Value: modesty Origin: China,Many proverbs, examples of folk wisdom, remind people of the values that are important in the culture, such as the above listed. Values teach people how to act, what is right, and what is wrong. Because the values of each culture are different, understanding the values of another culture helps explain how people think and act.,Definition of Value,Values are social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons in a culture. A value can be defined as a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action. (Klucnhohn) 价值观是“个人或群体所特有的一种显型或隐型的认为什么是可取的观念，这一观念影响人们从现有的种种行动模式、方式和目的中做出选择。”,Values, the innermost “skin of the onion”, lie at the core of a culture. Values often block the way of interpreting these practices by the insiders of the culture by an outsider. And values are the deepest manifestation of culture and the most difficult to understand by an outsider. 文化价值不是感官可以直接看到、闻到或摸到的，而必须从观察实际生活，包括语言的使用、育婴、社交行为、神话故事、法律等方面，才能归纳出来。,不拘礼节 (Informality)是美国人的主要文化价值之一。如何看出美国人的不拘礼节呢？ 在口语上：常听美国人在家里对客人说 “请便(make yourself at home)”； 在穿着上，随时可以看到美国人穿着牛仔裤到处跑，甚至出现在正式的宴会上；在称呼上，则更无长幼大小之分。百姓对一国至尊的总统，学生对老师，甚至儿女对父母，皆可称名道姓。 由此可见，比起德国、日本或中国，美国实在是一个很不喜欢繁文缛节的文化。,Cultural Dimensions,Geert Hofstede is an international authority on intercultural communication. He analyzed a large database of employee values scores by IBM between 1967 and 1973 covering more than 70 countries. Hofstede developed a model that identifies four primary dimensions for differentiating cultures (四个衡量价值观的尺度): 对权力距离的态度(power distance), 个体主义集体主义(individualism-collectivism), 对不确定因素的规避程度(uncertainty avoidance), 男性气质女性气质(masculinity - femininity).,Power Distance,This value dimension raises the following question: How should people with different levels of power, prestige, and status interact with one another; equally or unequally? Case Study High and Low Power Distance Cultures.exe,Those cultures that emphasize equality, such as Canada, Australia, and United States, tend to minimize power and status differences.,Power tends to be more diffused, people in higher positions can be questioned, and subordinates want their superiors to consult with them and be accessible.,According to Confucius, we have ruler guides subject, father guides son and husband guides wife (the “Three Cardinal Guides”), “三纲”是指“君为臣纲，父为子纲，夫为妻纲” benevolence, propriety (适当), reason , knowledge and sincerity for the “Five Constant Virtues”. “五常”即仁、义、礼、智、信 中国儒家伦理文化的架构，名份与教化观念维护社会的伦理纲常和政治制度。,People at the higher levels of the hierarchy are treated with great respect and deference (顺从, 尊重) by those lower down the ladder. People in authority should not step out of their privileged roles, bosses should not be questioned, and there is little or no delegation of authority.,Power distance,It describes the distribution of influence within the culture, the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. 所谓对权力距离的态度是指地位低的人们对于权力分配不平等的状况的接受程度，是比较愿意接受，还是比较不愿意接受。 例如在有的文化中比较重视权威、地位、资历、年龄等，而在有的文化中它们的重要性相对降低。,在权力差距大的社会，人们接受较强的等级制，安心于自己的位置。权力差距指数高的国家和地区有菲律宾、墨西哥、委内瑞拉、印度、新加坡、巴西、香港、法国、哥伦比亚等。 在高权力距文化的公司组织，员工凡事必须向上级请示，以进一步有所作为。在商业交易中，尤其是在谈判时，通常要求对方必须具有同等职位或头衔，才愿意开始互动。,权力差距小的社会，人们接受较弱的等级制。权力差距指数低的国家有澳大利亚、以色列、丹麦、新西兰、爱尔兰、瑞典、挪威、芬兰、瑞士等。 员工不注重僵化的礼节、头衔、地位、性别与年龄的差异，专业能力要比层级结构更重要，因此，常常事情完成后，下属才会告知上司。员工也因此比较具有弹性，想象力和创造力也比较丰富。,All cultures must ask and answer the following question: To what extent should people pursue their own individual activities and agendas rather than contributing to the success and well-being of the larger group, such a family, neighborhood, clan, team, or company? Case Study Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures.exe,Individualism - collectivism,Some countries, such as the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, place a high value on individualism. These cultures emphasize the worth and dignity of the individual over the group, independence rather than interdependence, and relatively few social obligations.,Everybody is trying to be different from the others in the team or clan; Personal goals are over the group goals; People place the worth and dignity of the individual over the group.,Other cultures, such as Japan and China, tend to emphasize the larger group. These cultures encourage people to put the interest of the group above their own, maintain strong ties and obligations to group members, and value long-term social relationships above short-term accomplishments.,Individualism - collectivism,In the individual culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the interests of the group On the collectivist side, we find that societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups 个人主义文化强调的是自我和个人的成就，与集体、社会的关系松散，相互依赖程度弱；而集体主义文化强调社区或群体的和谐与集体社会联系紧密，相互依赖程度强。,该尺度描述的是在一个特定的社会里个人与集体的关系，反映的是人们生活在一起的方式。它相应地体现在各色各样的价值观上。在一些文化里，个人主义被认为是一种赐福，是生活安宁的源泉；而在另一种文化中，它被认为是不和与分裂的祸根。 集体主义文化的国家主要在亚洲和拉丁美洲，个人主义文化主要在北美、欧洲和大洋洲。,美国文化是个人主义取向的代表，在美国社会里的公司经理，尤其是男性，特别认为自己是一个独立的个体，不习惯建立紧密的社交网。凡事喜欢自己做决定，并深信每个人都该如此。民主式的作风，更是普遍的原则。其他如加拿大、挪威也属于高度个人主义。 在集体主义价值取向的阿拉伯，公司员工通常会与整个组织团体的目标一致，公司也同时给予员工适当的回报与保护。员工的思想行为，应该有组织团体来决定。民主的作风是不可理解的概念。尼泊尔、科威特、埃及都是高度集体主义。,Uncertainty Avoidance,It deals with a societys tolerance for ambiguity people will endure and how much risk they like to take. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. 所谓对不确定因素的回避程度是指人们在非常规的环境中感觉舒服或是不舒服，非常规的环境指新奇的，未曾经历过的或者与通常情况迥异的环境。 Case Study Low and High Uncertainty Avoidance.exe,This dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguity. Cultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown. According to Hofstede, uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.,规避程度高的文化通过规章制度、安全措施及对于绝对真理的信仰尽力回避各种不确定因素，而规避程度低的文化对于反常的行为和意见比较宽容，他们的规章制度比较少，在哲学和宗教方面他们容许各种不同的主张同时存在。 规避程度高的文化在心理上难以忍受模模糊糊的事，对事比较“较真”。它们以制定一系列的行为规范来减少不确定性，这类的文化包括希腊、葡萄牙、比利时、日本、秘鲁、法国、智利、西班牙、阿根廷。 规避程度低的文化很有能力对付模模糊糊、模棱两可的事，对此没有心理的压力。属于这类文化的国家和地区有新加坡、丹麦、瑞典、香港、爱尔兰、英国、印度、菲律宾和美国。,Masculinity - Femininity,The masculinity-femininity dimension measures a cultures dominant values ranging from aggressive masculine traits to nurturing feminine traits. (1) masculine cultures These cultures place high values on masculine traits and stress assertiveness, competition and material success. (2) Feminine cultures These cultures place high values on feminine traits and stress quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for the weak.,Masculinity focuses on the degree the society reinforces or does not reinforce, the traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power. A high masculinity ranking indicates the country experiences a high degree of gender differentiation (区别, 分化). In these cultures, males dominate a significant portion of the society and power structure, with females being controlled by male domination.,A Low Masculinity ranking indicates the country has a low level of differentiation and discrimination between genders. In these cultures, females are treated equally to males in all aspects of the society. Mens values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from womens values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to womens values on the other. The assertive (过分自信) pole has been called “masculine” (阳刚的) and the modest, caring pole “feminine” (阴柔的). Case Study Masculinity versus femininity.exe,在一个特定的社会中，通常性别角色的分配是在家庭、学校和同辈人团体的社会化过程中得以变换的。占优势的社会模式是男人占主导地位，女人抚育后代。 所谓男性气质和女性气质是指在该文化中代表男性的种种品质（例如竞争性、独断性、物质成就）更多，还是代表女性的种种品质（例如重视生活品质、谦虚、关心爱护他人）更多。 属于典型的男性气质文化的国家有日本、奥地利、墨西哥和阿根廷；属于女性气质文化的国家有北欧挪威、瑞典、丹麦，西班牙、葡萄牙等国。,Confucian Dynamism,Confucian Dynamism（儒家动力）主要是亚洲四小龙，即中国台湾、香港、新加坡和韩国，共同分享的文化价值观。 这种价值观建立在儒家思想上，特别注重工作的伦理(work ethic)和对传统(tradition)的尊敬。其文化特质包括： 家庭内部特别强调自制、教育、学习技艺和以严肃的态度对待工作、家庭和义务；协助个人所认同的团体；重视阶层并视之为理所当然；重视人际关系的互补性。,Chinese Values vs. American Values,从Hofstede的研究中可以得出大致的结论：中美文化在价值观上的差异主要表现在个人主义集体主义、权力差距两个方面。 Of all the American values, individualism is probably the most basic. So some people refer to the American culture as “I“ culture, as individuals are emphasized. So Americans are expected to take initiative in advancing their personal interests and well-being and to be direct and assertive in interacting with others.,Chinese culture is believed to be collectivism-oriented where the basic unit of the society is the family (collective), not the individual. So it is sometimes referred to as a collective or “we“ culture. In order to get necessary support, its very important to get along well with other people.,Self-reliance,个人主义的价值观注重自立。例如，美国的老弱病残者只要自己能活动，哪怕是架上双拐，决不让他人帮助，否则会被认为是对他们独立精神的篾视。摔倒了，只要自己能爬起来，就不让别人搀扶。美国的父母在孩子会走路后，极少抱着孩子，孩子不小心摔了跤，只要未摔伤很少像中国父母亲那样上前把孩子扶起来。在中国扶老携幼、帮助伤病员和残疾人是美德。中国文化强调人与人之间的相互依靠。例如，中国谚语说“在家靠父母，出外靠朋友”，“远亲不如近邻”，处理问题“要依靠组织”。,Hierarchy,One of the characteristics of the Chinese culture is hierarchy. Every person is supposed to have a set position in family and society in order to achieve harmony between the people. Throughout the Chinese history, people have shown respect for age, seniority, rank, maleness, and family background, from which hierarchy is clearly seen.,For Americans, a hierarchy is an inequality of roles established for convenience. Subordinates consider superiors to be the same kind of people as they are, and superiors perceive their subordinates the same way. Superiors and subordinates feel relatively comfortable with shared decision-making and decentralization. Employees are not expected to rigidly conform to authority.,Humility,Humility is an important value in China, and the concern for humility is apparent everywhere, though often without our awareness. The way of showing humility is usually by self-disparaging. 中国人认为谦虚是一种美德，自炫其能不足取。当人们的工作受到称赞时，总是说“我们的工作仍有许多需要改进的地方”。中国人写的论文题目和书名中常出现“试论”、“浅谈”、“初探”之类的词语，这在英美文化中绝少出现。在英美谦虚没有什么值得称道的，人们对表扬的话一般只是说谢谢。,中国人请客吃饭，在丰盛的美味佳肴摆满桌之后，却说“没有什么好吃的，大家凑合着吃吧”。这种话对于欧美客人来说，真是难以理解，有时还会被误解为主人没有请客的诚意。而在美国人家里做客，男主人习惯说：“这是我夫人的拿手菜” 中国人常说“本人工作能力不足，请大家多多指教”，以表示谦虚，否则就有自不量力、目中无人之嫌。在英美向老板说这样的话，则十有八九被淘汰。美国人总是竭尽全力将自己从集体中突出出来，以求充分表现自己，中国人则努力使自己淹没在集体之中。,Harmony,In China, harmony is highly valued, and open conflicts are to be avoided. Competition is never encouraged. 中国人常把与世无争作为一种美德，重视集体成员之间的和谐。而西方人竞争心理根深蒂固。西方人看拳击时，对运动员被打得头破血流毫无恻隐之心，反而拍手叫好。而拳击运动在中国就引进得晚，开展得慢。对红楼梦中的人物，中西方人有不同的审美观，王熙凤倔强好胜、勾心斗角，在中国多数人的眼里是个反面人物，却得到多数西方人的喜爱。,Face,As harmony is the goal in a hierarchical society, courtesy or good manners has always been stressed by the Chinese tradition when interacting with other people. One important way to achieve this harmony is to accept and respect each persons need to preserve face. 在中国，人们感情外露不值得称道，办事说话讲求委婉含蓄。在美国，人们直率、感情外露则受人赞许。在发生冲突的交流环境中，个人主义文化的成员与集体主义文化的成员不同：前者更关心的是保全自我的面子，后者更关心的是保全双方或他人的面子。,西方的国际关系学者塞缪尔亨廷顿在其文明的冲突一书中，对中国和美国的文化差异这样描述：国际环境的变化使亚洲文明和美国文明之间根本的文化差异显现出来。 在最广泛的层面上，盛行于众多亚洲社会的儒家精神强调这样一些价值观：权威、等级制度，个人权利和利益居于次要地位，一致的重要性，避免正面冲突，保全面子，以及总的说来，国家高于社会，社会高于个人。,此外，亚洲人倾向于以百年和千年为单位来计算其社会的演进，把扩大长远利益放在首位。 这些态度与美国人信念的首要内容形成了对照，即自由、平等、民主和个人主义，以及美国人倾向于不信任政府，反对权威，赞成制衡，鼓励竞争，崇尚人权，倾向忘记过去，忽视未来，集中精力尽可能扩大眼前利益。冲突的根源是社会和文化方面的根本差异。,High-context vs. Low-context Culture,The concept of high- and low-context language has been researched by Edward T. Hall (1990). He believes that any cultural transaction can basically be divided into two communication system: high-context and low-context. Based on these two kinds of communication system, the cultures in the world can be classified into two major categories: High-context cultures and Low-context Cultures.,A high-context language transmits very little in the explicit message; instead, the nonverbal and cultural aspects of what is not said are very important. In high-context cultures reading between the lines in order to understand the intended meaning of the message is needed. The Chinese, Japanese, and Korean language and culture are examples of high-context communication.,In a low-context language and culture, the message is explicit; it may be given in more than one way to ensure understanding by t