某六层学生公寓建筑结构毕业设计（计算书+图）
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某六层学生公寓建筑结构毕业设计（计算书+图）,某六层,学生公寓,建筑结构,毕业设计,计算
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设计（论文）专用纸目录摘要(3)一、中文摘要及中文关键词(3)二、英文摘要及英文关键词(4)前言 (6)正文 (7)一、建筑设计(7)1、设计依据(7)2、设计要求(7)3、方案选择分析(7)4、总体布置、立面造型、经济指标及其他 (9)二、结构设计(10)1、结构方案比较、结构布置及计算简图 (10)2、重力荷载(14)3、横向框架侧移刚度计算 (19)4、横向框架水平地震作用下的内力和侧移计算(20)5、竖向荷载作用下的框架内力计算(28)6、横向框架的内力组合 (42)7、截面设计 (49)8、基础设计(68)8、楼梯设计 (77)结论 (81)总结体会(82)谢辞(83)主要参考文献(84) 附录 (86)一、英文原文 (86)二、中文译文 (96)摘要 一、中文摘要及中文关键词 本设计是学生公寓设计。总建筑面积为5391.49，底层占地面积为898.58，总高为21.90m。根据设计要求，设防烈度为8度，抗震等级为二级，设计中要考虑抗震设计。本方案采用钢筋混凝土现浇框架结构。主体结构为双向承重框架，横向框架等跨。在进行荷载计算和构件截面估算后，选取一榀框架进行计算，用迭代法算出内力，并对最不利活荷载和最不利内力进行分析，通过底部剪力法求出地震荷载。本方案基础形式采用柱下独立基础.整个方案设计基本符合设计和结构要求，具有一定的创造性和合理性。关键词：钢筋混凝土结构 框架结构 荷载设计值 荷载效应 Abstract一、English Abstract And KeywordsAbstract: It is that the students apartment designs to originally design. The total construction area is 5391.49, the floor space of ground floor is 898.58, the total height is 21.90m。According to the designing requirement , the earthquake intensity is 8 degrees to set up defences, the grade of antidetonation is two grade, consider aseismatic design in the design. This scheme adopts the cast-in-place frame structure of armored concrete . The agent structure is a two-way bearing frame , horizontal frame ,etc. are stepped. In is it is it calculate and component section after estimating , choose one Pin frame calculate to load to go on, calculate the internal force by changing and taking the place of the law, and the live load and the most unfavorable internal force disadvantageous that most are analysised , cut strength law is it happen through bottom earthquake load to ask. This basic form of scheme adopts the independent foundation under the post. The whole conceptual design accords with the design and structure demand basically, have certain creativity and rationality. Keyword:Reinforced concrete structure frame structure design value of a load load combination 前言： 该项目为一幢高校本科学生公寓楼。总建筑面积为5391.49，底层占地面积为898.58，总高为21.90m 。根据设计任务书和宿舍建筑设计规范 JGJ 36-2005以及城市道路和建筑物无障碍设计规范 JGJ 50-2001等国家现行的有关规范的要求，我分别对该学生公寓进行了基地的选址、总平面图布置、内部设计，使该公寓与周围环境协调一致，节约建筑用地，合理组织人流，保证良好的安全疏散条件和通风采光。公寓的结构采用全框架钢筋混凝土结构，平面形状为规则矩形。这使得整个结构拥有很好的整体性和较大的刚度，抗震性能优良。结构设计部分完成了该房屋的结构平面布置，结构计算简图、重力荷载计算、横向框架的侧移刚度计算、3轴线横向框架在水平地震恒载活载等作用下的内力计算、框架梁柱的内力组合、截面设计、基础设计、楼梯设计。并根据以上设计绘制了相应的建施图和结施图。 正文一、建筑设计 1、设计资料该 项目为云南省中医学院学生公寓楼设计。总建筑面积为 45006000，位于昆明东城区呈贡云南省中医学院内。六层全框架结构，室内外高差为0.45m。防火等级为二级，抗震设防烈度为8度，设计基本地震加速度值为0.2g。2、设计要求对普通高校学生公寓的设计，在基地的选择和总平面上的布置，建筑设计，室内环境，建筑设备等尚应符合民用建筑通则，中华人民共和国建设部宿舍建筑设计规范 JGJ 36-2005、城市道路和建筑物无障碍设计规范 JGJ 50-2001以及相关规则。除了符合这些规定外，还应符合国家现行有关标准的规定。3、方案的选择分析通过查阅资料及相关规范，针对本次毕业设计的课题，初步提出建筑方案设计。建筑物的平面设计主要是合理地布置建筑物的外部使用空间，较好的组织使用部分和交通部分。在设计使用部分时，对不同使用功能的房间，其面积、形状和尺寸都要满足活动空间的范围，设备合理的要求；门窗的大小和位置，应考虑疏散安全，采光通风良好；房间的构造应使结构构造布置合理，施工方便，也要有利于房间之间的组合，所用材料要符合相应的建筑标准；交通部分的设计主要是把各个房间之间以及室内外之间联系起来，根据人流量的不同，较合理的布置其使用面积。交通联系部分的设计要简捷明确，联系通行方便；人流通畅，紧急疏散时迅速安全；满足一定采光通风要求；力求节省交通面积，同时考虑空间出来等构造问题。根据程建设地点为昆明地区。地段根据设计任务书地段图2。1、建筑设计内容及规模房屋建筑学、民用建筑通则、宿舍建筑设计规范JGJ 36-2005、城市道路和建筑物无障碍设计规范JGJ 50-2001和国家有关规范以及对本次毕业设计提出有关要求，初步作出方案设计一。 本方案底层平面图如图1所示： 方案一方案一中，大厅显得很狭窄，开间和进深与单间宿舍一样均为：3.9*7.5后经赵老师指正，将这间大厅与右边的一间宿舍合并，则其开间和进深变为：7.8*7.5。作为一个大厅，这样的尺度才更为合理，更改后的方案如下图：方案二4、总体布置、立面造型、经济指标及其他本栋公寓楼平面布置为规则矩形，长方向为50.7m，纵向为17.4m。立面造型简洁明朗。在建筑的平、立剖面设计上，我始终从建筑的整体空间组合效果来考虑，紧密联系建筑剖面和立面，分析剖面、立面的可能性和合理性，不断调整修改平面，反复深入，才得到现在这套建筑方案。 二、结构设计、结构方案比较、结构布置及计算简图该学生公寓位于昆明呈贡云南省中医学院内，为六层全框架结构，总建筑面积5391.49，室内外高差0.45米。防火等级为二级，抗震烈度为8度，所在地的设计地震动参数max=0.16,Tg=0.20g,地震分组为二组，基本雪压S0=0.3KN/m2 。年降雨量967.5mm,最大降雨量52.7mm/h,暴雨阵雨强度187mm/h。常年地下水位于地表下2.80mm,水质对混凝土无侵蚀性。 根据钻探，建筑所在的区域的地质情况如下： 层 耕土，层厚0.501.00m。 层 粉质粘土：褐红黄色，中密，硬坚硬状态，稍湿，层厚9.7011.9m。 1层 粉砂（为不液化土层）：黄灰黄色，中密，饱和，层厚0.404.70m，呈透镜体分布于粉质粘土层之中。层粘土：黄灰黄色，硬坚硬状态，稍湿，层厚1.008.00m。该场地属于中硬场地土，类建筑场地，根据地层结构，建筑特征，荷重情况，建议采用独立基础，其岩土设计参数综合取值建议表如下：地层代号及名称物理指标力学指标承载力特征值 天然重度孔隙比天然含水量液限液限指数内聚力内摩擦角压缩系数压缩模量粉质粘土19.50.6421390.0740180.16102201粉砂20.50.56182635200.1110200粘土20.00.6221410.25%。规范要求最小配筋率 min0.25(%) 配筋率 最小配筋率 min，满足要求。将下部跨间截面的522钢筋伸入支座，作为支座负弯矩作用下的受压钢筋（As=1900mm2）,再计算相应的受拉钢筋As即支座A的上部。 查混凝土结构设计上册附表4-1得：说明As富裕，且达不到屈服，可近似取实取525（As=2454mm2）支座B上部实取525（As=2454mm2） ，满足要求。斜截面受剪承载力计算：AB跨故截面尺寸满足要求。粱端加密区箍筋取4肢8100，加密区长度取0.85m，非加密区箍筋取4肢8150，箍筋设计满足要求。BC跨：若粱端箍筋加密区取4肢12100，则其承载力为：由于非加密区长度较短，故全跨均可按加密区布置箍筋。框架梁纵向钢筋计算表格如下：框架梁箍筋计算表格计算如下： 2、框架柱下表给出框架柱各层剪跨比和轴压比计算结果，其中剪跨比也可取Hn/（2h0）.注意，下表中MC、VC和N都不应考虑承载力抗震调整系数。由表可见，各柱的剪跨比和轴压比均满足规范要求。 柱的剪跨比和轴压比验算：柱的剪跨比和轴压比验算柱层bhofcMcVcNMc/(Vcho)N/fcbh号次mmmmN/mm2KNmKNKNA柱660056014.3139.89105.67270.962.360.000056460056014.3349.32209.24936.072.980.000195170066014.3767.85257.792168.394.510.000328B柱660056014.317.8722.743000062460056014.3249.12149.48870.362.980.000181170066014.3744.87237.781841.954.750.000279柱截面配筋计算：对于第一层A柱：采用弯矩最大的一种组合N=1734.72kN，M=767.85(kN-m)一、已知条件1、控制信息 配筋形式: 采用对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 700mm, h = 700mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 660mm 截面面积: A = 490000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 4.85(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1734.72(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=767.85(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 442.636(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 23.3333(mm) ei=e0+ea = 465.97(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 2.01963 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6.92857 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.04857 e=ei+h/2-as = 798.601(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 173.299(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = 1750.65(mm2)选用采用最大轴力组合N=1765.01kN，M=88.88 (kN-m)一、已知条件1、 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 700mm, h = 700mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 660mm 截面面积: A = 490000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 4.85(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1765.01(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=88.88(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 50.3567(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 23.3333(mm) ei=e0+ea = 73.69(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 1.98497 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6.92857 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.30711 e=ei+h/2-as = 406.321(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 176.325(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。 As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = -1308.86(mm2)对于第二层A柱采用最大弯矩组合N=1362.58kN，M=375.04(kN-m)一、已知条件1、控制信息 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 600mm, h = 600mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 560mm 截面面积: A = 360000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 3.6(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1362.58(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=375.04(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 275.243(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 20(mm) ei=e0+ea = 295.243(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 1.88906 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.04877 e=ei+h/2-as = 569.643(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 158.809(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = 648.15(mm2)采用最大轴力组合N=1428.74kN，M=125.73 (kN-m)一、已知条件1、控制信息 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 600mm, h = 600mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 560mm 截面面积: A = 360000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 3.6(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1428.74(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=125.73(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 88.0006(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 20(mm) ei=e0+ea = 108.001(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 1.80159 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.13333 e=ei+h/2-as = 382.401(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 166.52(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = -720.014(mm2)对于第一层B柱：采用弯矩最大的一种组合N=1013.19kN，M=737.18 (kN-m)一、已知条件 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 700mm, h = 700mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 660mm 截面面积: A = 490000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 4.85(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1013.19(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=737.18(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 727.583(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 23.3333(mm) ei=e0+ea = 750.917(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 3.45789 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6.92857 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.03014 e=ei+h/2-as = 1083.55(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 101.218(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。 As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = 2152.38(mm2) 采用最大轴力的一种组合N=1878.87kN，M=24.44 (kN-m)一、已知条件1、控制信息 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 700mm, h = 700mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 660mm 截面面积: A = 490000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 4.85(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1878.87(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=24.44(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 13.0078(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 23.3333(mm) ei=e0+ea = 36.3412(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 1.86468 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6.92857 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.62274 e=ei+h/2-as = 368.972(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 187.699(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。 As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = -1659.82(mm2)对于第二层B柱：采用最大弯矩组合N=829.94kN，M=385.16 (kN-m)一、已知条件 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 600mm, h = 600mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 560mm 截面面积: A = 360000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 3.6(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=829.94(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=385.16(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 464.082(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 20(mm) ei=e0+ea = 484.082(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 3.10143 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.02975 e=ei+h/2-as = 758.482(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 96.7296(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。 As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = 1094.38(mm2)采用最大轴力组合N=1878.87kN，M=24.44 (kN-m)一、已知条件1、控制信息 截面类型: 矩形截面 配筋形式: 对称配筋2、材料信息 混凝土强度等级: C30( fc = 14.3N/mm2 ft = 1.43N/mm2 ) 受拉纵筋种类: HRB400( fy = 360N/mm2 Es = 200000N/mm2 ) 受压纵筋种类: HRB400( fy= 360N/mm2 Es= 200000N/mm2 )3、截面尺寸 b = 600mm, h = 600mm, as = 40mm, as = 40mm, h0 = 560mm 截面面积: A = 360000(mm2) 构件计算长度: L0 = 3.6(m)4、内力/配筋 轴力设计值 N=1518.3(kN) 弯矩设计值 M=78.35(kN-m)二、计算结果1、计算系数 1 = 1, 1 = 0.8, cu = 0.00332、截面相对受压区高度 b 1 / 1 + fy / (Es * cu) = 0.5176473、截面纵筋最小配筋率 min = 0.2%, min = 0.2%4、计算偏心距及偏心距增大系数 e0=M/N = 51.6038(mm) ea=max20.0f, h/30 = 20(mm) ei=e0+ea = 71.6038(mm) 1=0.5fcA/N = 1.69532 1.0, 取1=1.0。 L0/h=6 15.0, 取2=1.0。 =1+1/(1400*ei/ho)*(L0/h)2*1*2 = 1.20111 e=ei+h/2-as = 346.004(mm)5、计算配筋 受压区高度x=N/(1*fc*b) = 176.958(mm) x = 2as=80, 满足。 As=As=(Ne-1*fc*b*x*(h0-0.5x) / fy(h0-as) = -1018.02(mm)框架柱的配筋计算不一一详述。配筋结果见下表：柱号第一层第二层第三层第四层第五层第六层A522520420420420420B525520420420420420框架柱箍筋按构造配筋，结果见下表：柱号层次实配箍筋（v%）加密区非加密区A56481004820034481004820012410100410200B56481004820034481004820012410100410200八、框架柱下独立基础设计基础计算 3轴A柱采用独立基础,混凝土强度等级为 ()底板钢筋选用HRB335级钢（）工程地质情况见下表。基础梁取。 基础受力简图1、荷载计算1）由柱传到基顶的荷载由框架柱内力组合表可得荷载设计值：第一组：，第二组：， 由基础梁传至基顶的荷载： 墙重： 基础梁： 基础梁传至基础顶面荷载不产生偏心。作用于基底的弯矩和相应基顶的轴力设计值分别为：假定基础高度为，则作用于基底的弯矩和相应基顶的轴向力设计值为：第一组：第二组：2）基础尺寸的确定a、初估选用轴力max的初算第一组按中心荷载作用确定取由和b、地基承载力特征值的修正根据设计任务书，查建筑地基基础设计规范GB50007-2002.表5.2.4得：验算的条件c、基础底面压力的验算第一组： 第二组：d、确定基底的高度前面初步假定基础的高度为,采用阶梯形基础，初步确定的基础剖面尺寸如右图所示。在各组荷载设计值作用下的地基最大净反力。第一组：第二组：抗冲切计算按第一组负载设计值作用下的地基净反力进行计算冲切力近似按最大地基净反力计算，即取由于基础宽度，小于冲切锥体底边宽：故满足要求变阶处验算冲切上边宽 冲切底边宽 满足要求。F、配筋计算在第一组负载设计作用下，前面已算得相应于柱边及变阶处的净反力。 因此以作为配筋计算依据。 则 选用16120（As=1675mm2）分布钢筋选用8250. 3轴B柱基础设计(1)荷载计算a、由柱传至基顶的荷载由柱内力组合表可得荷载设计值如下：第一组：第二组： 基础受力简图b、由基础梁传至基顶的荷载基础横梁：基础纵梁：基础梁传至基础顶面荷载不产生偏心。C、作用于基底的弯矩和相应基顶的轴向力设计值分别为：假定基础高度为，则作用于基底的弯矩和相应基顶的轴向力设计值为：第一组：第二组： （2）基础底面尺寸的确定经比较，选择第一组作为荷载设计值计算基础配筋。由第一组荷载确定和取由于很小故满足的条件由前面计算可知： 经验算以上都满足要求。（3）确定基底的高度A、在荷载设计值作用下的地基最大净反力：抗冲切计算按荷载设计值作用下的地基净反力进行计算冲切力近似按最大地基净反力计算，即取冲切椎体底边宽：0.7+2*0.85=2.4m有效高度的确定图所以满足要求变阶处的验算所以经验算基础变阶处满足要求（4）基础配筋计算a、 配筋计算在荷载设计值作用下，相应于柱边及变阶处的净反力 选用：16120（As=1675mm2）分布钢筋选用8250.、现浇楼梯设计楼梯配筋计算 一、 楼梯荷载和受力计算计算简图如下：计算公式如下：其中hh：楼板在不同受力段取不同的值，上图所示取楼梯梯板折算高度在楼梯折板处取梯板厚度，在平台处取平台厚度，在楼板处取楼板厚度。荷载计算参数（单位KN/m）：装修荷载Qz=1.00活荷载：Qh=2.00恒载分项系数1.2，1.35活载分项系数1.4 1.4*0.7梯板负筋折减系数（ZJXS）=0.8 各跑荷载及内力计算及示意图： 其中：Qb梯板均布荷载； Qbt梯板弯折段均布荷载； Q平台均布荷载； Q楼面均布荷载； 单位(KN/m)； 第1标准层第1跑 Qb=10.529 Qbt=7.600； Qp=7.600 Qw=7.000；_ _ 第1标准层第2跑 Qb=10.529 Qbt=7.600； Qp=7.600 Qw=7.000；_ 第2标准层第1跑 Qb=10.529 Qbt=7.600； Qp=7.600 Qw=7.000；_ 第2标准层第2跑 Qb=10.529 Qbt=7.600； Qp=7.600 Qw=7.000； 二、 配筋面积计算: 楼梯板底筋Asbd(cm2)：按照两端简支求出max,按照max配筋 楼梯板负筋Asbf(cm2)：梯板负筋弯矩取max*ZJXS,按此弯矩照配筋 楼梯平台如果两边都有支承,按照四边简支板计算,采用分离式配筋 平台板底筋Aspd(cm2) 平台板负筋Aspf(cm2)_ 标准层号跑数AsbdAsbfAspdAspf116.07 4.790.000.00126.07 4.790.000.00216.044.770.000.00225.043.990.000.00三、 配筋结果: 配筋措施： 楼梯梁保护层厚度：0 楼梯板及平台板保护层厚度： 受力钢筋最小直径： 楼梯板受力钢筋=8 休息平台受力钢筋= 楼梯梁受力钢筋= 受力钢筋最小间距：100 mm 非受力分布钢筋： 受力钢筋=14时,取8250 楼梯板分布筋每踏步至少：6_各跑实际配筋结果： 梯板和平台配筋结果： - 层号 跑数梯板底筋 梯板分布筋梯板负筋平台底筋平台负筋 -1 1 10100 8200 8100 8180 8200 1 2 10100 8200 8100 无 无 2 1 10100 8200 8100 8180 8200 2 2 10150 8200 8100 无 无 梯梁配筋结果： 层号跑数梯梁1顶纵筋梯梁1底纵筋梯梁1箍筋梯梁2顶纵筋梯梁2底纵筋梯梁2箍筋11220_220_6200 无无无122202206200无无无212202206200无无无222202206200无无无 结论我的毕业设计的题目是云南省中医学院学生公寓，采用钢筋混凝土全框架结构，总建筑面积为5293.08，首层建筑面积为898.58。在本次毕业设计之前，无论是建筑设计方面，还是结构设计方面，我的知识都相对欠缺，很多地方都是一知半解，对整个设计流程也是模糊不清的。赵老师为方便学生联系，把电话号码给学生，有什么事就可以及时得到解决，这样问题不致堆积、也不会因此拖了进度。在老师的精心指导下，并通过自己对资料的查阅和学习，终于在指定的时间内完成了本次毕业设计。 通过这次设计，我锻炼了自己解决实际工程问题的能力、独立查阅文献能力、计算机及软件应用能力等的培养。整个设计完成了建筑设计、结构设计以及建筑制图。根据设计任务书的要求，本设计为六层四人间男生公寓。设计依据主要参考了国家现行的有关设计规范：民用建筑通则、普通宿舍设计规范、城市道路和建筑物无障碍实际规范。在建筑设计方面，首层设置一间无障碍宿舍，将管理员值班室和会客室并在一间，每层均设有一个公共卫生间。按指导老师的要求宿舍内卫生间和淋浴间分隔设置，其利用空间大大增加了。在结构设计方面，结构形式为钢筋混凝土全框架结构，框架结构的优点就是能够提供开阔宽敞的空间，抗震性能较优。此次毕业设计，我们只选取了一榀框架做内力分析和截面设计。从截面尺寸的选择到基础设计的完成，让我对结构设计流程有了一个清晰的认识。在这次设计过程中，我查阅大量资料和学过的课本，并通过大量的手算，对以前较模糊的力学概念有了更深刻的理解；培养了自己独立思考和学习的能力；同时对相关绘图软件也能够熟练操作。感觉这次设计给我带来很大的收获！在此要感谢赵老师和给我帮助过的同学。总结体会这次设计是对我大学四年的综合，也是对我所学知识的集中应用，它全面的反映了我对大学四年所学知识的掌握程度。就我自己而言，在本次设计中，从一开始的资料调查和资料收集到最后的综述报告和出图。在整个的设计工作中，我认真、仔细、严格地按照老师的安排完成各项工作，而且对设计中不明白的问题向老师、同学请教。在设计过程中，我不断地出现错误，又不断地解决错误，不断地吸取自己和同学们出错的教训，总结大家的经验，并注意老师提到的事项，将各个因素融入本设计中，尽量做到最终的设计不出错或少出错。我所做出的努力在我的设计成果中已经充分表现了出来，我对自己在整个毕业设计的过程中的表现满意，但是仍然有需要改进之处，在本次设计中，我发现电算和手算存在很大差别，我的电算配筋结果比手算配筋结果要小很多，可能是我对PKPM软件的相关参数设置还不够熟悉。这次设计虽然还是存在很多问题，但值得我骄傲的是，在毕业设计完成的现在，我已经可以保证在我的下一个设计中绝对不会在出现相同的问题，我认为这是我这次毕业设计收获最多的地方。通过这次毕业设计，我对本专业的认识又提高到了一个深度，对结构设计的总体概念也有了加强，这对我将来的工作有了极大的帮助。谢 辞衷心感谢在这次毕业设计中给予我帮助的老师和同学们!首先感谢学校及学院领导对我们此次毕业设计的关注和安排，在毕业设计的过程中，学校给予了我们在时间安排上和教室安排上的许多方便，使我们能在要求的时间内完成此次设计。其次感谢在设计过程中一直给予我指导和帮助的赵惠敏老师，感谢赵老师这段时间以来在设计安排、知识讲解以及其他方面给予我的关心和指导，使我对所学知识有了更深的理解，顺利完成了本次设计。同时感谢在设计中给我帮助的每一位老师，感谢和我一起完成这次毕业设计的各位同学，以及所有给予过我帮助的人。主要参考文献1、有关建筑、结构的规范、标准(1)混凝土结构设计规范GB 500102002（2）建筑地基基础设计规范GB500072002（3）建筑抗震设防分类标准 GB5022395（5）建筑结构可靠度设计统一标准 GB 500682001（6）建筑抗震设计规范 （GB 5000112001）（7）建筑地基基础设计规范 GB 500072002（8）地基与基础工程施工质量验收规范 GB 502022002(9)宿舍建筑设计规范(JGJ36-2005) 主编部门：中华人民共和国建设部(10)城市道路和建筑物无障碍设计规范(JGJ36-2001) 主编部门：中华人民共和国建设部(11)建筑构造标准图集（西南J） 成都：西南地区建筑标准设计协作办公室1991 (12)建筑制图标准汇编主编部门：中国建筑标准设计研究所2、工程结构抗震 教材3、房屋建筑学 教材4、钢筋混凝土及砌体结构 教材5、土力学及地基基础 教材6、建筑设计防火规范7、工民建专业毕业设计手册 武汉工业大学出版社出版8、建筑设计资料集4、10 中国建筑工业出版社9、建筑结构抗震设计 中国建筑工业出版社10、房屋结构设计 重庆大学出版社11、混凝土结构设计原理 重庆大学出版社12、建筑构造标准图集(西南J)13、混凝土设计手册14、混凝土结构构造手册15、建筑设计资料集16、混凝土结构计算手册附录一、英文原文BuildingAbstract: There are a lot of building history and historical buildings, and the development of such as building materials and so on. Till now we have a better technology and science about building.Key words: modern buildings and structural materials, building types and design, components of a building.Modern Buildings and Structural MaterialsMany great buildings built in earlier ages are still in existence and in use. Among them are the Pantheon and Colosseum in Rome , Hagia Sophia in Istanbul; the Gothic churches of France and England, and the Renaissance cathedrals, with their great domes, like the Duomo in Florence and St. Peters in Rome .They are massive structures with thick stone walls that counteract the thrust of the great weight. Thrust is the pressure exerted by each part of a structure on its other parts.These great buildings were not the products of knowledge of mathematics and physics. They were constructed instead of the basis of experience and observation, often as the result of trial and error. One of the reasons they have survived is because of the great strength that was built into them-strength greater than necessary in most cases. But the engineers of earlier times also had their failure. In Rome, for example, most of the people lived in insula, great tenement blocks that were often ten stories high. Many of them were poorly constructed and sometimes collapsed with considerable loss of life.Today, however, the engineer has the advantage not only of empirical information, but also of scientific data that permit him to make careful calculations in advance. When a modern engineer plans a structure, he takes into account the total weight of all its component materials. This is known as the dead load, which is the weight of the structure itself. He must also consider the live load, the weight of all the people, cars, furniture, machines, and so on that the structure will support when it is in use. In structures such as bridges that will handle fast automobile traffic, he must consider the impact, the force at which the live load will be exerted on the structure. He must also determine the safety factor, that is, an additional capability to make the structure stronger than the combination of the three other factors.The modern engineer must also understand the different stress to which the materials in a structure are subject. These include the opposite forces of compression and tension, In compression the material is pressed or pushed together; in tension the material is pulled apart or stretched, like a rubber band. In addition to tension and compression, another force is at work, namely shear, which we defined as the tendency of a material to fracture along the lines of stress. The shear might occur in a vertical plane, but it also might run along the horizontal axis of the beam, the neutral plane, where there is neither tension nor compression.Altogether, three forces can act on a structure: vertical-those that act up or down; horizontal-those that act sideways; and those that act upon it with a rotating or turning motion. Forces that act at an angle are a combination of horizontal and vertical forces. Since the structures designed by civil engineers are intended to be stationary or stable, these forces must be kept in balance. The vertical forces, for example, must be equal to each other. If a beam supports a load above, the beam itself must have sufficient strength to counterbalance that weight. The horizontal forces must also equal each other so that there is not too much thrust either to the right or to the left. And forces that might pull the structure around must be countered with forces that pull in the opposite direction.One of the most spectacular engineering failures of modern times, the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1904, was the result of not considering the last of these factors carefully enough. When strong gusts of wind, up to six-five kilometers an hour, struck the bridge and also a lateral motion that caused the roadway to fall. Fortunately, engineers learn from mistakes, so it is now common practice to test scale models of bridges in wind runnels for aerodynamic resistance.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their buildings. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a nature cement called pozzolana, made from volcanic ash, that become as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon, had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile strength; that is, it does not lose its strength when it is under a calculated degree of tension, a force which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further increased the strength of steel and eliminated some of its problems, such as fatigue, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a powder. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate(small stones, crushed rocks, or gravel), and water to make concrete. different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situation where both compression and tension are factors. Steel roads are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop. Concrete and steel also from such a strong bond-the force that unites them that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Steel another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reason, the opposite of acid.Prestressed concrete is an important form of reinforcement. Steel roads are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to prestress concrete, usually by pretensioning or posttensioning method. Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.The current tendency is to develop lighter materials. Aluminum, for example, weights much less than steel but has many of the same properties. Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few buildings.Attempts are also being made to produce concrete with more strength, durability and a lighter weight. One system that helps cut concrete weight to some extent uses polymers, which are long chainlike compounds used in plastics, as part of the mixture.Building Types and DesignA building is closely bound up with people, for it provides people with the necessary space to work and live in.As classified by their use, buildings are mainly of two types: industrial buildings and civil buildings. Industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production which civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling, employment, education and other social activities.Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds, in such fields as the mining industry, the metallurgical industry, machine building, the chemical industry and the textile industry. Factory buildings can be classified into two types: single-story ones and multi-story ones. The construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings. However , industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used.Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings. Residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms: a living room , a kitchen and a toilet . public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities , administration work and other services , such as schools , office buildings , child-care centers, parks, hospitals, shops, stations, theatres, gymnasiums, hotels, exhibition hall, bath pools, and so on. All of them have different functions, which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings. The basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements, but people today require much more than this of their housing. A family moving into a new neighborhood will want to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety, health, and comfort. A family will also ask how near the community center.In the mid-1960s, a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out. A majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land, which would provide space for spare-time activities. In highly industrialized countries, many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area, even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work. Quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise, crowding, and confusion. The accessibility of pubic transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work. People were chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms.Before any of the buildings can begin, plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like, the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms, which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended. In a dwelling house, the layout may be considered under three categories: “day”, “night”, and “services”. Attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas. The “day” rooms generally include a dining-room, setting-room and kitchen, but other rooms, such as a study, may be added, and there may be a hall. The living-room, which is generally the largest, often serves as a dining-room, too, or the kitchen may have a dining alcove. The “service” comprise the kitchen, bathrooms, larder, and water-closets. The kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms.It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms, and those most in use should preferably face south as much as possible. It is, however, often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements, both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads. In resolving these complex problems, it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities, density of population, height of buildings, proportion of green space to dwellings, building lines, the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighborhood, and so on.There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations. The modern trend is towards light, airy factory buildings with the offices, reception rooms, telephone exchange, etc. , house in one low building overlooking the access road, the work-shop, also light and airy, being less accessible to public view.Generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction, a factory can be given a “shed” type ridge roof, incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting with-out sun-glare.to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop. Concrete and steel also from such a strong bond-the force that unites them that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Steel another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reason, the opposite of acid.Prestressed concrete is an important form of reinforcement. Steel roads are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to prestress concrete, usually by pretensioning or posttensioning method. Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.The current tendency is to develop lighter materials. Aluminum, for example, weights much less than steel but has many of the same properties. Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few buildings.Attempts are also being made to produce concrete with more strength, durability and a lighter weight. One system that helps cut concrete weight to some extent uses polymers, which are long chainlike compounds used in plastics, as part of the mixture.Components of a BuildingMaterials and structure forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes existence to two development of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel is a construction and the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1855. Gustame Eiffel (1832-1923) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.The first elevator was installed by Elisha Otis in a department store in New York in 1857. In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.Load-carrying frame. Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of buildings because of the enormous wall thickness required; for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in 1880s in Chicago had walls 5 feet(1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” wall material until the 1930s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of the steel skeleton, the height of buildings continued increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War . After the war, the shortage of steel and the improve quality of concrete led to tall buildings being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Towers (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States; its height-588 feet (179 meters) is exceeded by the 650-feet (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York city, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962, has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-feet (3-meter) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube; the World Trade Center buildings are another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical tresses are usually provided to give lateral stability.Skin. The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction; it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.Floors. The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slaps of concrete on concrete beams or a series of concrete closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7-5.5meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugate steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.Mechanical and Electrical Systems. A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed buildings with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the lighting may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of buildings by frankly expressing them; for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building (1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.Soil and Foundations. All buildings are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of a foundation depends on many soil layers and their compaction and groundwater condition. Soils rarely have a single compaction; they generally are mixtures in layers of soil layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are gravel to gravel to rock . In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot (976.5 metrics ton/ sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot (2.44 metric tons/ sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in state of compaction; that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gravels) exhibit properties they deform when compress under load and rebound when the road is removed. The elasticity of soil is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time , which may from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building; that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend to settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico city, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete (spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area; in this case, a continuous slab of concrete (raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subjected to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedure. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.二、中文译文建筑摘要 大量建筑的历史和历史中的建筑，以及建筑在材料等各方面的发展，到今天相关的理论是比较成熟的。关键字 建筑结构和材料，建筑的类型和设计，建筑的组成。现代建筑和结构材料 古代修建的许多伟大的建筑仍然存在并仍在使用中。其中罗马的万神殿和大斗兽场；伊斯坦布尔的索菲亚大教堂 ; 法国和英国的哥特式教会和新生大教堂，它们巨大的穹顶，像佛罗伦萨和罗马的圣彼得大教堂。这些巨型结构用它们厚实的石墙抵抗巨大重量带来的推力。推力是一个结构的每个部分施加在它的其他部分的压力。这些伟大的建筑不是数学和物理知识产品。它们在没有经验和观察依据的基础上被修建起来,通常是不断失败和不断尝试的结果。它们幸存下来的原因之一是建造它们所用的强度远大于它们实际所需的强度。但古时的工程师也有他们的失败。例如在罗马,大多数人民居住在裙房，很多出租房通常达到十层高，这些房子有许多被粗劣的修建并且时常倒塌导致大量的伤亡。然而今天，工程师不仅仅在经验方面有很大的提高，而且大量的科学数据允许他事先做仔细的推算。当一位现代工程师设计一个建筑时，他考虑到所有组分材料的总重量。这就是做恒荷载，是结构自身的重量。他必须也考虑动荷载，人、车、家具、生活用具和结构正常使用是承载的所有重量。像桥梁类的结构承载着高速运行的车辆，他必须考虑活荷载施加在结构上的冲击荷载。他也必须考虑安全的因素，即考虑安全的额外承受能力使结构强度大于实际的受力强度。现代工程师必须并且了解结构不同组件所受到的不同力，包括两个完全相反的作用压力和拉力，在受压状态下材料被压或被推挤在一起；在受拉状态下材料被拉开或和拉长, 正如一根橡皮条一样。 除了拉力和压力，还存在另一种受力状态，称为剪力，它可能存在于垂直平面内, 也可能存在于梁的水平截面内。在中性面内，既不存在拉力也不存在拉力。综合起来一共有三种力作用在结构上：垂直方向要么上要么下; 而水平方向则要么左要么右; 这些力使结构产生扭转或者弯曲的变形。而斜向的力则是水平方向和竖直方向两个力的合力。土木工程所涉及的力使静力，这些力必须保持平衡。以竖直方向为例，它们必然相互抵消。如果一根梁上作用了荷载，那么这根梁必须有足够的强度来抵抗它上面所作用的荷载。在水平方向的力同样要平衡，这样才不会使构件左右发生移动。使建筑产生扭转的力就要通过相反方向抵抗扭转的力来平衡。总而言之，在静力中，所有力都要满足平衡条件。现代的一个重大的工程失误就是1904年塔科马大桥的崩溃, 这次工程事故的原因使是没有足够仔细考虑这些力作用的持续时间。当风速超过65公里每小时的强风暴来临时,导致了行车道发生了侧向的移动使这座大桥倒塌。幸运的使，工程师从失误中吸取教训，所以现在最普遍的做法是，做个模型在风洞里进行桥梁模型的风抵抗试验，从试验中得到大量的有效数据。更加早期的主要建筑材料是木和石工砖、石头或者瓦片和一些类似的材料。希腊人和罗马人有时使用铁棍或钳位加强他们的建筑。以在雅典的Parthenon神庙为例，现在在钻了的孔里面还有生锈了的钢钉。罗马也使用了由火山灰做的称为pozzolana的自然水泥，在水下变得跟岩石一样坚硬。 钢筋和水泥，现代两种最重要的建筑材料，在19世纪被使用了。 钢由铁和少量的碳组成的合金，在那时从冶炼中得到钢铁作为刀剑有着特殊的用处。 1856年，Bessemer过程发明以后，钢铁可以用低价购买得到。钢的最大有点就是它的抗拉强度; 即它在一定的拉力下不丢失它的强度，我们知道在很多材料在承受拉力的情况下很容易断裂。新的合金进一步增加了钢的强度并且消除了钢材在重复的变向力的作用下像容易疲劳的一些缺点。现代水泥, 叫做波特兰水泥, 1824 年发明了这种水泥。这是一种石灰石和黏土进过加热然后加工成粉末的混合物，在建设现场它与沙子、集料(小石子、碎石、或石渣), 和水形成混泥土。混凝土的可塑性非常好; 它可以被浇筑成任何形状的构件。钢材有抗拉强度好的特点，而混凝土则有抗压强度
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