英语本科毕业论文-研究英语委婉语的交际功能.doc

A Study on Communicative Functions of English EuphemismAbstract: As a kind of linguistic and cultural phenomenon, English euphemism is so common in the process of human communication. It is an important way to coordinate the interpersonal relation during the linguistic communication. Communicative functions of English euphemism help us express our feelings and views more freely. Using euphemism properly is an effective communicative way to communicate with each other harmoniously. This thesis, first of all, introduces the definition of English euphemism, classification of the English euphemism and formation of the English euphemism. Then it analyzes the five communicative functions of English euphemism through discussing many examples for the purpose of illustrating how to use them in the cross-cultural communication so as to decrease communication errors, to avoid interpersonal conflicts and to strengthen learners cultural communication consciousness, and eventually to improve learners communicative competence. In some circumstance, only by using euphemism, can we reduce offence and conflict even misunderstanding, therefore, euphemism becomes an important role of language and has been deeply rooted in social communication. There is no doubt that it is necessary for us to study communicative functions of English euphemism in order to create a proper communicational environment, to better avoid some obstacles in communication, to improve the intercultural communicative competence.Key Words: English Euphemism; Communicative Functions; Cross-cultural Communication;研究英语委婉语的交际功能摘要: 英语委婉语作为一种语言和文化现象，它是人类使用语言过程中的一种普遍现象，是言语交际中协调人与人关系和社会关系的重要手段。本文根据委婉语的定义、分类及构成，通过大量的实例分析了英语委婉语的交际功能，目的在于说明如何将其用于跨文化交际以减少交际失误，避免人际冲突，同时还利于提高外语学习者的跨文化交际意识，在某种场合下，只有用了委婉语，我们会减少冒犯别人也会互相避免矛盾。委婉语具有的社交功能使人们能更自由的表达自己的思想，恰当使用委婉语是达到和谐交际目的的有效交流方式。由于委婉语具有较强的说服力，拥有很好的修辞效果，所以它遍及人们生活的每一个角落，作为交际生活中的的一种润滑剂倍受人们欢迎。因此，委婉语在语言中变得很重要的角色，它深深地植根于社交中。毋庸置疑，对于我们研究英语委婉语的交际功能很有必要,旨在营造良好的交流环境，避免交流中的障碍，从而提高跨文化交流的能力。关键词: 英语委婉语；交际功能；跨文化交际IIContentsAbstract in EnglishIAbstract in ChineseII1. Introduction12. Brief Review of English Euphemism22.1 Definition of English Euphemism22.2 Classification of English Euphemism42.3 Formation of English Euphemism53. Analyses of Communicative Functions of English Euphemism83.1 For Politeness83.2 For Evasion103.3 For Disguise113.4 For Persuasion123.5 For Beautification134. Conclusion15Bibliography17Acknowledgements18I1. IntroductionWith the development of world economy and frequent contacts between different countries, such as joined Word Trade Organization and held the Olympic Games in 2008 and world-wide meetings, intercultural communication is becoming more and more important session. Accordingly, it requires a smooth and convenient communication. Euphemism, as a linguistic and intercultural phenomenon, is frequently used and plays an important role in English. To some extent, without proper application of euphemism, communication is impossible. Euphemism, which exists in all sorts of linguistic phenomena commonly, as Enright, D.J wrote in fairy of speech ,the use of Euphemism 1985,if a language without euphemisms could be a defective instrument of communication.( Enright, 113) , is a kind of expressive form in the social communication for the purpose of expressing meaning mildly, harmlessly and politely. The linguist Leech believe that euphemism promote people to enhance the feelings in conversation with others and the premise of mutual understanding is to try not to hurt the feelings of others to express views, people Should pay attention to rhetoric decency, may avoid offending others during they are conversation.(Zhang qianghong, Li Miao,1).As we all know, there are many taboos in language in every nation. There is no doubt that it is necessary for us to study communicative functions of English euphemism in order to create a proper communicational environment, to better avoid some obstacles in communication, to improve the intercultural communicative competence.Based on the development of English euphemism, this thesis will make an introduction in the first chapter. In the second chapter, I will show us the brief review of English euphemism including the definition of euphemism, the classification of English euphemism, and the formation of English euphemism. In the third chapter, I will mainly introduce the five major communicative functions of English euphemism through analyzing many examples. In the last chapter, I can make a brief summary and point out the limitations.2. Brief Review of English Euphemism2.1 Definition of English EuphemismEuphemism, as a kind of linguistic phenomenon, has existed in language for a long time. As we all know, language is the carrier of culture, and it seems that almost all cultures have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly. Generally speaking, if these notions of things have to be referred to, people are willing to use words or expressions that sound better than the origins. Of course, these words or expressions are termed as euphemisms. Neaman(1990:1) think that substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using by kind words(lv Xu, 228).English euphemisms have experienced ceaseless changes in the whole history of its development, some of them dying out, some kept to today, some joining this family as new members. The subject of the earliest euphemism was undoubtedly religious. They were usually prohibited to express the real names of the powers. Consequently, priests devised indirect forms of reference to calm the spirit. The instinct we have identified as religious extends further into the many domains of taboos that are dominated by a strong conviction about the magic power of words.We all know that English euphemisms originate from Greece. Yes, in deed, when Greek feted in ancient time, people usually have to say something good to bless themselves. Later, the Greek cultures are transmitted to England directly or indirectly. Queen Victoria period is the period of great prosperity. It is said that English euphemisms first appeared in ancient and middle English. With the development of society, the category of English euphemisms are, to large extent, influenced and changed by some etiquette rules and social rules. Now, in modern English, English euphemisms are involved in many aspects Such as body function, death, disease, race, professional, money, politics and war, etc. Many of the taboos current during the Anglo-Saxon era survived until the 14th century. Chaucer seems hardly to bat an eyelash at describing a womans most intimate parts and her frank use of them for engendering. Wife and Bath, his famous work though apparently bold and forthright, is actually a mistress of sexual euphemism. Chaucers use of her illustrates one of the linguistic tendencies of euphemism that was to flourish in Shakespeare. In the 16th century, Shakespeare simply starts from which the Wife and Bath ended. He shows his societies bright and its eccentric mixture of religiosity and irreverence in his characters words about swearing. The 17th century has seen a hothouse of governmental and political, even more sexual, euphemism. After the puritan revolution, many new and colorful terms and a host of linguistic inventiveness come into being in the new literature. With new-classicism, euphemism often takes a Latin turn. In the 18th and 19th century, British euphemism was developing both home and abroad. Since the British Empire colonized, its linguistic customs spread with it. Although American, Canadian, and Australian can coin euphemism with their own native color of their new lands and lives, the formation of euphemism still imitated or followed those of the English middle class. Of course, the biggest changes in American languages were obvious after World War I and II and during the 1960s counterculture movement, as it is a reaction to war. Apparently, linguistic change has mirrored cultural change. In English, the term euphemism originates from the Greek word euphemism. The original meaning of euphemism in English is good speech, which is the prefix, means good or sounding good and phone means speech or saying. Thus the literal meaning of euphemism is to speak with good words or in pleasant manner. Nowadays, different definitions of euphemism can be found easily in different dictionaries. In the New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary (1976), it is described as substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one. It is taken as substitution, restraint, softened expression, mock modesty, metaphorical speech, verbal extenuation word in verbal good taste, over delicacy of speech, affected refinement of language in Websters New Word Thesaurus (1971). In Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, euphemism refers to the use of other, usually less exact but milder or less blunt, words or phrases in place of words required by truth or accuracy. In Oxford University Press, The Uses of Euphemism written by Enright D. J. Defines it as a mild or vague periphrastic expression as a substitute for blunt precision of disagreeable truth. In Oxford University Press, Euphemism and Dysphemism written by Allan K. and K. Burridge explains that used as an alternative to a dis-preferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face, either ones own face, or through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party. In Collins Dictionary of the English language, euphemism is defined as inoffensive word or phrase substituted for one considered offensively hurtful, especially one concerned with religion, sex and death, etc.From the definitions mentioned above, it is easy to understand that the notions of English euphemism extend to emphasizing expressions at all levels of linguistic forms that communicate an attempt to avoid being rude or giving offence.The Random House College Dictionary defines euphemism as the substitution of a mild, indirect or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh or blunt. That is to say, the nature of euphemism is that using the words which sound pleasant, indirect and rational replaces the things which are easy to make people embarrassing, unpleasant and frightening in daily life. It goes without saying that euphemism has some vital communicative functions in social communication. On the one hand, it is a tool to maintain the appropriate application and efficiency of language taboos, and on the other hand, it can be used to keep a better interpersonal relationships with others, promoting communication develop normally. At the same time, it reflects a kind of culture, a kind of social values or believes in the psychology.2.2 Classification of English Euphemism According to the communicative functions, euphemism can be sorted as positive euphemism (exaggerating euphemism) and negative euphemism (narrowing euphemism). In the following, we will talk about the two general types. First of all, lets discuss positive euphemism. Usually, the positive euphemisms exaggerate and magnify in order to make the euphemized items grander and more important than they really are. In America, the factory, enterprise, business and store are private and are in the charge of some small group. They reject and compete with each other fiercely, and they try their best to beautify their own industry so as to survive better in the cruel society. The word industry at first is just used by the machine manufactures which are manufacturing finished products. But now this word can almost be used in every profitable department. For example, broadcasting industry, hotel industry, garage industry, womens beauty industry, etc. When it comes to negative euphemism, actually, it is obvious that the negative euphemisms deflate and shrink. They are protective in nature, making up the effect of the tabooed terms and preventing from language everything that people are not willing to handle directly. Negative or defensive euphemisms are extremely tracing back to ancient. For example, it was Greeks who converted the Furies into the Eumenides (the kindly ones). Obviously, in many cultures, it is prohibited to pronounce the name of God or of Satan. Usually, the names of dead, and of animals that are hunted or feared, may also be euphemized in this way. Nowadays, euphemisms, either positive euphemism or negative euphemism, are frequently used in our daily life unconsciously, without the intent to avoid or eradicate. Just as the now-standard terms, cemetery (from the Greek word for sleeping place, it substituted for the more deathly graveyard) and the names of various barnyard animals, including the donkey and the sire.2.3 Formation of English Euphemism When it comes to the formation of English euphemism, many kinds of devices need discussing, such as phonetic devices, spelling devices, vocabulary devices, grammatical devices, rhetorical devices and so on, which are the five general semantic processes by means of which English euphemism are created. But of course, there are others as well. As to the phonetic devices, firstly, Phonetic distortion is the varying of a sound in a word. It is a common means to form English euphemisms. When we confronted with words that are too bad to speak the names directly, we usually abbreviate, shorten, initial, convert, back form and reduplicate them. For instance, it is easy to find that the word God is usually replaced by the words Gad, Goodness, Gosh, and Golly, and Christ replaced by cripes so as to show their deeply respect. Secondly, assonance is another significant means to form euphemisms. For example, because coffin and coffee are similar in sound, a coffin shop is euphemized as a coffee shop. What is more, rhyming slang is also a vital means to create English euphemisms although it is informal and with local color. It comes from working class originally, however, now it is widespread accepted and used as euphemism in Standard English, for instance, tea leaf is for thief. As to the spelling devices, if people have to use some phrases that are so unpleasant and impolite that they are reluctant to speak, abbreviations are good ways to solve this problem. For example, VD takes the place of venereal disease; BM replaces bowel movement, and WC substitutes for water closet, etc. In addition, reinterpretation of initial is also another means to create English euphemisms, which is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in JC for Jesus Christ.As to the vocabulary devices, it is so common to create euphemisms by borrowing words from other languages. There is no doubt that these words have few negative meaning and sensitive feelings so that they sound like more neutral and pleasant. For example, the word magnetic has been used to take the place of the term sexy, indisposed is substituted for sick or ill, etc.As to the grammatical devices, as an English major student, we are so familiar with many examples to illustrate the fact that the euphemism can be created via grammatical devices. First of all, we know that, in oral English, the present tense can be replaced by the past tense of verb in order to make the meaning of the sentences more polite and mild. In the second place, as we all know, the subjunctive mood in English is made full use of to express doubt, wishes, or possibility. Once used in spoken English, it can reach a better communication effect than other mood. For example, the sentence: If I were you, I would help the elder. It is a sentence to make suggestion. The speaker uses subjunctive mood to express his advice which make the listener easier to accept. Additionally, tag question is also committed to the formation of English euphemism. For another example, the phrase such as isnt it? Wont it? , or doesnt he? It is frequently found at the end of the sentence for the purpose of asking you to agree with the above statements politely.As to the rhetorical devices, euphemisms can be also formed through the rhetorical means as follows:Example 1, according to understatement, it is common to use euphemistic words in the intercultural communication to grasp the fact deliberately so as to achieve more polite and pleasant effect. Let us see the example below.A: How do you think of her? B: Well, she is not particularly good-looking. In this dialogue, compared with the word ugly, it is clear that the expression not particularly good-looking is more neutral and implicit. (Colin cobuild English Dictionary SFFP, 2000) Accordingly, this sentence flexibly avoids annoying the people concerned. Example 2, according to metaphor, euphemisms can, of course, be formed by a process which is called metaphorical transfer. That is to say, we compare things of one kind to things of another. And the euphemisms formed in this way usually appear in literary works. Example 3, according to metonymy, English euphemisms are also made by metonymy. In some circumstances, only by using metonymy, can bluntness be avoided, and politeness effect is achieved. For example, Green hair should be respected. In fact, we all know that green hair refers to old people, but in this sentence, old people can be replaced by green hair because old is a taboo in some English speaking countries, and people have to choose another euphemistic word to replace.3. Analyses of Communicative Functions of English Euphemism In the communication, people usually, according to polite principle and cooperative principle, adopt some words implicit, elegant and polite to replace t