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[T0059]五层局部四层6700平米框架结构大学教学楼设计

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关键词：: t0059 局部平米框架结构大学教学楼设计

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郑州大学机械工程学院教学楼方案（一）

摘要

本工程为郑州大学机械工程学院教学楼，采用框架结构，主体为五层，本地区抗震设防烈度为7度，场地类别为II类场地。楼屋盖均采用现浇钢筋混凝土结构。本设计贯彻“实用、安全、经济、美观”的设计原则。按照建筑设计规范认真考虑影响设计的各项因素。根据结构与建筑的总体与细部的关系。在确定框架布局之后先进行了层间荷载代表值的计算,接着利用顶点位移法求出自震周期而按底部剪力法计算水平地震荷载作用下大小进而求出在水平荷载作用下的结构内力（弯矩、剪力、轴力）。接着计算竖向荷载（恒载及活荷载）作用下的结构内力。是找出最不利的一组或几组内力组合。选取最安全的结果计算配筋并绘图。此外还进行了结构方案中的室内楼梯的设计。完成了平台板，梯段板，平台梁等构件的内力和配筋计算及施工图绘制。对楼板进行了配筋计算，本设计采用桩基础，对基础承台和桩进行了受力和配筋计算。整个结构在设计过程中，严格遵循相关的专业规范的要求，参考相关资料和有关最新的国家标准规范，对设计的各个环节进行综合全面的科学性考虑。总之适用、安全、经济、使用方便是本设计的原则。设计合理可行的建筑结构方案是现场施工的重要依据。

关键词：框架结构，抗震设计，荷载计算，内力计算，计算配筋

Mechanical engineering college of zhengzhou university teaching building

Author：Zhang sanfeng

Tutor：Liu lina

ABSTRACT

This works for the zhengzhou university teaching building , a framework structure for a five-storey main, in the region earthquake intensity of 7 degrees near Lan site classification as Class II venues. Floor roof were using cast-in-place reinforced concrete structure. The design and implement "practical, security, economic, aesthetic," the design principles. With the architectural design, design seriously consider the influence of the various factors. According to the structural and architectural detail and the overall relationship. In determining the distribution framework, the first layer of representative value of the load, Then use vertex from the displacement method for earthquake cycle, and then at the bottom of shear horizontal seismic load calculation under size, then calculated the level of load under the Internal Forces (bending moment, shear and axial force). Then calculate vertical load (constant load and live load) under the Internal Forces. Identify the most disadvantaged group or an internal force several combinations. Select the best safety results of the reinforcement and Mapping. In addition, the structure of the program indoor staircase design. Completion of the platform boards, boards of the ladder, platform beam component and the reinforcement of internal forces calculation and construction mapping. On the floor reinforcement calculation, the use of pile foundation design, foundation and pile caps for the force and reinforcement calculation.

The whole structure of the design process, in strict compliance with the relevant professional standard, reference to relevant information and the latest national standards and specifications, and design of the various components of a comprehensive scientific considerations. In short, application, security, economic and user-friendly design is the principle. Design reasonable and workable structure of the program is the construction site of the important basis for the construction.

KEY WORDS:Frame Structure,Seismic Design ，Load Calculation， Internal force calculation，Calculation reinforcement

1绪论6

2 梁、柱截面尺寸估算7

3 框架计算简图及梁柱线刚度8

4 荷载计算9

4.1恒荷载标准值计算

4.1.1 屋面9

4.1.2 各层楼面9

4.1.3 梁自重9

4.1.4 柱自重10

4.1.5 外纵墙自重10

4.1.6 内纵墙自重10

4.1.7 外横墙自重11

4.1.8 内横墙自重11

4.1.9 走廊尽头墙11

4.1.10 女儿墙自重12

4.2 活荷载标准值计算12

4.2.1 屋面和楼面活荷载标准值12

4.2.2 雪荷载标准值12

4.3 恒荷载和活荷载作用下框架的受荷图12

4.3.2 B～C轴间框架梁13

4.3.3 A轴柱纵向集中荷载的计算14

4.4 风荷载标准值计算16

4.5 水平地震作用计算17

4.5.1 重力荷载代表值计算17

4.5.2 框架柱抗侧刚度D和结构基本自振周期计算19

4.5.3 多遇水平地震作用计算21

4.5.4 刚重比和剪重比验算23

5 内力计算23

5.1 恒荷载标准值作用下框架的内力23

5.2 活荷载标准值作用下框架的内力23

5.3 风荷载标准值作用下框架的内力23

5.4 水平地震作用下框架的内力32

5.5 重力荷载代表值作用下框架的内力38

5.5.1 均布重力荷载代表值计算38

5.5.2 作用于A柱集中重力荷载代表值计算38

5.5.3 作用于B柱集中重力荷载代表值计算38

5.5.4 框架内力39

6 内力组合39

6.1 各种荷载作用下梁控制截面的内力39

6.1.1 恒荷载作用下梁控制截面的内力39

6.1.2 活荷载作用下梁控制截面的内力45

6.1.3 风荷载作用下梁控制截面的内力45

6.1.4 水平地震作用下梁控制截面的内力45

6.1.5 重力荷载代表值作用下梁控制截面的内力46

6.2 各种荷载作用下柱控制截面的内力46

6.2.1 恒荷载作用下柱控制截面的内力46

6.2.2 活荷载作用下柱控制截面的内力47

6.2.3 风荷载作用下柱控制截面的内力47

6.2.4 水平地震作用下柱控制截面的内力47

6.2.5 重力荷载代表值作用下柱控制截面的内力48

6.3 框架梁内力组合50

6.3.1 地震作用下框架梁内力组合50

6.4 框架柱内力组合51

6.4.1 非地震作用下框架柱内力组合51

6.4.2 地震作用下框架柱内力组合51

7 框架梁截面设计61

7.1 框架梁正截面承载力计算61

7.2 框架梁斜截面承载力计算69

7.3 框架梁裂缝宽度验算73

8 框架柱截面设计73

8.1 框架柱正截面承载力计算74

8.1.1 轴压比验算74

8.1.2 正截面承载力计算74

8.2 框架柱斜截面承载力计算79

8.3 裂缝宽度验算80

9 次梁截面设计81

9.1 荷载计算81

9.2 内力计算81

9.3 次梁截面承载力计算81

9.3.1 次梁正截面承载力计算81

9.3.2 次梁斜截面承载力计算82

10 板截面设计82

10.1 B1计算83

10.1.1 荷载计算83

10.1.2 内力计算83

10.1.3 截面承载力计算84

10.2 B2计算85

10.2.1 荷载计算85

10.2.2 内力计算85

10.2.3 截面承载力计算86

11 楼梯设计86

11.1 设计资料86

11.2 踏步板设计（TB1）87

11.2.1 确定踏步板的基本尺寸87

11.2.2 荷载计算87

11.2.3 内力计算88

11.2.4 配筋计算88

11.3 平台板设计（TB2）88

11.3.1 确定平台板的基本尺寸88

11.3.2 荷载计算88

11.3.3 内力计算89

11.3.4 截面承载力计算89

11.4 平台梁设计（TL1）89

11.4.1 确定平台梁尺寸89

11.4.2 荷载计算89

11.4.3 内力计算90

11.4.4 正截面承载力计算90

11.4.5 斜截面承载力计算91

11.5 其它梁、板设计91

12 基础设计91

12.1 作用于基础顶面上的荷载计算92

12.1.1 A轴基础92

12.1.2 B轴基础92

12.2 A柱基础的计算93

12.2.1 初步确定基础尺寸93

12.2.2 地基承载力验算（采用标准组合）94

12.2.3 冲切验算（采用基本组合）95

12.2.4 基础底面配筋计算（采用基本组合）96

12.3 B柱基础的计算96

12.3.1 初步确定基础尺寸96

12.3.2 地基承载力验算（采用标准组合）97

12.3.3 内力分析（采用基本组合）98

12.3.4 基础梁配筋计算98

12.3.5 底板配筋计算99

致谢102

参考文献102

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内容简介：: xx科技学院毕业设计（文献翻译）单位代码 02 学号分类号 TU 密级毕业设计文献翻译院（系）名称工学院建筑建筑系专业名称土木工程学生姓名指导教师 2013年3月15日Civil engineering introduction papersAbstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.key words : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and military project corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with peoples food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with live relationship is directly. Because, to solve the live problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the line, food and clothes problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. Line, must build railways, roads, Bridges, Feed, must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, water and wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of peoples life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, its like a mans life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a persons bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Because earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m struck capacity ( 25 m heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallestve a capacity of about 0.5 m , and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m . Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m and the articulated type of about 0.5 m . The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucksBuilding materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technology improves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through construction means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance Chinas construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is the interaction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant measures. 3As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in peoples in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in peoples life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the oceanBridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a more comfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I ones life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic. But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:1 LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 20072 WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 20023 jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing. 1992土木工程概论摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。整个世界每天都在改变，而建筑也随科学的进步而发展。力学的发现，材料的更新，不断有更多的科学技术引入建筑中。以前只求一间有瓦盖顶的房屋，现在追求舒适，不同的思想，不同的科学，推动了土木工程的发展，使其更加完美。关键词：土木工程；建筑；力学；材料。土木工程是建造各种工程的统称。它的原意是与“军事工程”相对应的。在英语中，历史上土木工程、机械工程、电气工程、化工工程都属于Civil Engineering，因为它们都具有民用性。后来，随着工程科学技术的发展，机械、电气、化工都已逐渐形成独立的科学，Civil Engineering就成为土木工程的专门名词。至今，在英语中，Civil Engineering还包括水利工程、港口工程；而在我国，水利工程和港口工程也成为与土木工程十分密切的相对独立分支。土木工程既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程是一种与人们的衣、食、住、行有着密切关系的工程。其中与“住”的关系是直接的。因为，要解决“住”的问题必须建造各种类型的建筑物。而解决“行、食衣”的问题既有直接的一面，也有间接的一面。要“行”，必须建造铁路、道路、桥梁；要“食”，必须打井取水、兴修水利、进行农田灌溉、城市供水排水等，这是直接关系。而间接关系则不论做什么，制造汽车、轮船也好，纺纱、织布、制衣也好，乃至生产钢铁、发射卫星、开展科学研究活动都离不开建造各种建筑物、构筑物和修建各种工程设施。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。建筑工程就是兴建房屋规划，勘测，设计，施工的总称。目的是为人类的生产和生活提供场所。房屋好比一个人，它的规划就像人生活的环境，是由规划师负责的；它的布局和艺术处理相应于人的体形、容貌、气质，是由建筑师负责的；它的结构好比人的骨骼和寿命，是由结构工程师负责的；它的给排水、供热通风和电气等设施就如人的器官、神经，是由设备工程师负责的。也像自然界完好地塑造人一样，在城市我地区规划基础上建造房屋，是建设单位，勘察单位、设计单位的各种设计工程师和施工单位全面协调合作的过程。结构说穿了，不过就是受力体的反力与内部应力如何与外力达到平衡。建筑首先要解决，也是必须要解决的问题就是受力的问题。我们把解决这个问题的学科称为建筑力学。建筑力学有可以分为：静力学，材料力学和结构力学三大力学体系。建筑力学是讨论和研究建筑结构及构件在荷载和其他因素影响的工作状况，也就是建筑的强度，刚度，稳定性。在载荷作用下，承受载荷和传递载荷的建筑结构和构件会引起周围的物体对它们的作用，同时物件本身受载荷作用而产生变形，并且存在着被破坏的可能性，但是结构本身就具有一定的抵抗变形和破坏的能力，而结构的承载能力的大小是与构件的材料，截面的几何尺寸，受力性质，工作条件和构造情况有关。而这些关系都可以由力学关系式通过计算而得以解决。由于和土木工程中任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较，土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多，因此对于有事业心的人来说，土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域。在1935年，目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现。那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输，在这目前来说是很少采用的。当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲、反铲、拉铲或抓斗等挖土机，尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用，但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分。因此，一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展，他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的机械。一般说来，有关挖土机、装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得。土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方（填方）。为了降低土方工程费用，填方量应该等于挖方量，而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点，以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运。土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上，因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉。根据现有的地图和标高，道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的。它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案。费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方。这并不是经常可以做到的，但是如果能够做到则是很理想的，因为这样做既快捷又省钱。拉铲挖土机。推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点。拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大。推土机所推运的图的数量最多，只是运输距离很短。拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不准确。正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间，其作用半径大于推土机，但小于拉铲挖土机。正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面，这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的，而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的。每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业。正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土，而深挖坚实的土壤时，反铲挖土机最适用，但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多。在比较平坦的场地开挖，如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时，则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的。它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土（但只能挖机械本身下面的土），需要时可以将土运至几百米远，然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平。在挖掘硬土时，人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆助推拖拉机（轮式或履带式），对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的。一旦铲运机装满，助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机。斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械，许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为8 m，满载时可达10 m。最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为19立方米（满载时为25 m），由430马力的牵引发动机驱动。翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备，因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方，尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种，但大多数车斗是向前翻转的。最小的翻斗车的容量大约为0.5立方米，而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为4.5m。特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为4 m的自装式翻斗车，和容量约为0.5 m的铰接式翻斗车。必须记住翻斗车

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