油气工程(english).doc

油气工程UNIT 1 Origin of Oil and Gas 石油和天然气的成因 Oil and gas result mostly from dead microorganisms buried quickly in anoxic environments , where oxygen is so scarce that they do not decompose. This lack of oxygen enables them to maintain their hydrogen-carbon bonds , a necessary ingredient for the production of fossil fuels. Newly developing ocean basins ,formed by plate tectonics and continental rifting (deforrnation) , provide just the right conditions for rapid burial in anoxic waters. Rivers fill these basins with sediments carrying abundant organic remains. Because the basins have constricted water circulation ,they also have lower oxygen levels than the open ocean. 石油和天然气大多是由缺氧环境下迅速被掩埋的死亡微生物生成的。这种环境氧气奇缺致使这些微生物无法分解。氧气的缺乏能够使那些死去的微生物保持他们的碳氢键这是产生化石燃料的一种必要组分。由板块构造运动和大陆裂谷作用（变形）而新近演化形成的大洋盆地，正好为在缺氧水域的快速埋藏提供了合适环境。河流携带着丰富的有机残余物充填这些盆地。由于这些盆地的水循环受到局限，因此，他们的含氧量比开阔的大洋更低。Plate tectonics is also responsible for creating the “pressure cooker” that slowly matures the organics into oil and gas. This process usually takes millions of years , giving the oil and gas deposits time to migrate around the globe on the back of plate movements. Because these hydrocarbons are much more buoyant than water ,they eventually force their way to the surface . Alternatively , rifting, collisions between landmasses, and other tectonic forces can free the mature oil and gas from deep within sedimentary basins and then trap these organic fluids in reservoirs before they escape to the earths surface. We know these reservoirs as oil and gas fields.板块构造还形成了一个使有机质缓慢成熟演化成石油和天然气的“压力锅”。油气生成过程通常要经历数百万年，从而为在板块运动背景下油气的运移提供了时间。因为烃类化合物比水的浮力大，所以他们最终会竭力上升到地表。同时裂谷作用，板块之间的碰撞以及其他构造力可以将沉积盆地深处成熟的石油或者天然气释放出来，并在这些有机流体逸散到地表之前，将他们圈闭在油气藏中，我们称这些油气藏为油气田。The same plate tectonics that creates the locations and conditions for anoxic burial is also responsible for the geologic paths that these sedimentary basins subsequently take. Continents provide the movement from swamps, river deltas and mild climates-where most organics are deposited-to the poles and deserts ,where they have ended up today by coincidence.为缺氧条件下微生物的埋藏提供了空间和条件的板块构造运动同样对这些沉积盆地的后期地质演化起着重要作用。大陆漂移、俯冲（一个板块俯冲到另一个板块之下的过程）以及和其他大陆的碰撞作用能使沼泽、河流三角洲和温带气候区（大部分有机沉淀的地方）恰巧演变成现今的极地和沙漠环境。EX：全球消耗的能源约86%都属于化石燃料，另外12%来自水利和核能，但仅有大约2%的能源为可再生能源，如太阳能、风能和地热能。未来2050年内，这种情况可望改变，但一切要视新科技发展和传统能源生产情况而定。替代能源技术的实施需要大量的时间和资金投入。Approximately 86 percent of the worlds energy consumption is based on fossil fuels. Another 12 percent comes from hydro and nuclear power , but only about two percent comes from renewable energies like solar , wind and geothermal power . This situation will hopefully be changed in the next 20 to 50 years ,but it surely depends on new technological developments and what happens with conventional energy production .It will take a lot of time and money for alternative energy technologies to be implemented.UNIT2 Evolution of Petroleum Exploration Concepts and TechniquesFrom the days of Noah to OPEC the role of the petroleum geologist has become more and more skilled and demanding .In the early days oil was found by wandering about the countryside with a naked flame, optimism, and a sense of adventure .One major U.S. company ,which will remain nameless , once employed a chief geologist whose exploration philosophy was to drill on old Indian graves . Another oil finder used to put on an old hat , gallop about the prairie until his hat dropped off ,and start drilling where it landed .History records that he was very successful (Cunningham-Craig,1912). One of the earliest exploration tools was “creekology” .It gradually dawned on the early drillers that oil was more often found by wells located on river bottoms than by those on the hills .The anticlinal theory of oil entrapment ,which explained this phenomenon , was expounded by Hunt (1861). Up to the present day the quest for anticlines has been one of the most successful exploration concepts.从圣经里的诺亚时代到OPEC（石油输出国组织）时代，石油地质学家这一职业需要越来越多的技能，要求越来越高。早期石油都是人们满怀热情、乐观和冒险精神，在乡村信步游荡时发现的。一个大型的美国公司（匿名）曾聘用了一位首席地质学家，他的勘探哲学是在印第安人古墓上进行钻探。另一个石油探寻者习惯于带上一顶旧帽子，然后在草原上骑马狂奔直至他的帽子掉落，并在他的帽子落地的地方开始钻井。据历史记载，他是非常成功的（坎宁安克雷格，1912）。“溪滨学”是最早的石油勘探工具之一，早期钻井工程师逐渐明白在河流底部钻井比山顶钻井更容易发现石油。由亨特创立的（1861）石油捕集的背斜理论可以解释这种现象，直至今日，背斜钻探一直是最成功的石油勘探概念之一。Experience soon proved , however , that oil could also occur off structure . Carll(1880) noted that the oil-bearing marine Venango sands of Pennsylvania occurred in trends that reflected not structure , but paleo-shorelines . Thus was borne the concept that oil could be trapped stratigraphically as well as structurally . Stratigraphic traps are caused by variations in deposition, erosion , or diagenesis within the reservoir .然而，经验很快证实，石油也能出现在偏离构造的地方。卡尔（1880）指出，宾夕法尼亚含油的海相韦南戈砂岩分布带反映的不是构造，而是古海岸线。因此，石油能赋存于地层圈闭和构造圈闭的勘探概念诞生了。地层圈闭是由沉积、侵蚀或储层内部的成岩作用的变化形成的。Through the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth , oil exploration was based on the surface mapping of anticlines . Stratigraphic traps were found accidentally by serendipity or by subsurface mapping and extrapolation of data gathered from wells drilled to test structural anomalies . Unconformities and disharmonic folding limited the depth to which surface mapping could be used to predict subsurface structure . The solution to this problem began to emerge in the mid-1920s , when seismic (refraction), gravity, and magnetic methods were all applied to petroleum exploration.19世纪末到20世纪初，石油勘探是以对背斜构造的地面绘图为依据。地层圈闭偶尔靠运气发现，或是通过地下绘图和对为检验构造异常体而进行钻井所得到的数据推断而来。不整齐和不规则的褶皱作用限制了地表绘图对地下构造推断的深度。20世纪20年代中期，当地震（反射）、重力和磁力方法都应用于石油勘探时，该问题才开始得以解决。Pure geological exploration methods advanced slowly but steadily during the first half of the twentieth century . One of the main applications to oil exploration was the development of micropaleontology . The classic biostratigraphic zones , which are based on macrofossils such as ammonites, could not be identified in the subsurface because of the destructive effect of drilling . New zones had to be defined by microfossils , which were calibrated at the surface with macrofossils zones. The study of modern sedimentary environments in the late 1950s and early 1960s , notably on Galveston Island (Texas) , the Mississippi delta , the Bahama Bank , the sedimentary facies and their interpretation . This insight provided improved prediction of the geometry and internal porosity and permeability variation of reservoirs.20世纪上半叶，纯粹的地址学勘探方法发展缓慢但稳步前行，石油勘探的主要应用之一是微体生物学的发展。基于菊石等大化石的传统生物地层带不能够在地表下鉴定，因为钻井具有毁坏性作用。新的生物带不得不由微体化石来确定，微体化石带在地表由大化石带校准。20世纪50年代末60年代初的现代沉积环境研究，特别是在加维斯顿岛（德克萨斯州）、密西西比三角洲、巴哈马堤岸、荷兰瓦登海、阿拉伯湾的研究，为古沉积相及其解释提供了新的见解。这种新视野提高了预测储层几何形状、内部孔隙度和渗透率变化的能力。The 1970s saw major advances on two fronts : geophysics and geochemistry .The advent of the computer resulted in a major quantum jump in seismic processing . Instead of seismologists poring painfully over a few bunched galvanometer traces , vast amounts of data could be displayed on continuous seismic sections. Reflecting horizons could be picked out in bright colors , first by geophysicists and later even by geologists . As techniques improved , seismic lines became more and more like geological cross-sections ,until stratigraphic and environmental concepts were directly applicable.20世纪70年代，见证了两个前言领域地球物理学和地球化学的主要发展。计算机的出现带来了地震处理技术的巨大飞跃。地震学家不再对几束检波器记录苦思冥想，大量数据可以显示在连续的地震剖面上。地球物理学家首先将反射层位拉出来用鲜明的颜色标示，后来甚至地质学家也能这么做。随着技术的进步，地震测线变得越来越像地质剖面，直至地层学概念和环境概念直接应用于此。In the 1980s increasing computing power led to the development of 3D seismic surveys that enabled seismic sections of the earths crust to be displayed in any orientation ,including horizontal. Thus it is now possible to image directly the geometry of many petroleum reservoirs. Similarly enhanced processing methods made it possible to detect directly the presence of oil and gas .These improvements went hand in hand with enhanced borehole logging . It is now possible to produce logs of the mineralogy , porosity ,and pore fluids of boreholes, together with images of the geological strata that they penetrate.20世纪80年代，计算机计算能力的提高促进了三维地震勘探技术的发展，这就使得地震剖面能够从任意方位进行显示，包括水平显示。因此，现在可以对许多油藏的几何形态直接成像。同样增强了的处理方法使得直接探测油气的存在成为可能。这些技术的进步与先进的测井技术齐头并进。现今，可以测到矿物、孔隙度、井眼孔隙流体的测井曲线，以及钻井所穿过地层的图像。EX：根据最早的科学研究调查，石油的形成被归结为两种起源：有机的和无机的。一些化学家和天文学家认为石油是无机起源的，有的是火成岩成因，有的是宇宙成因，或者是两者的结合体。大部分石油地质学家认为石油是由埋藏的有机物质经成岩作用形成的，并且指出石油形成于沉积岩而不是火成岩。经济而精确的化学分析技术的出现使得生油岩的研究成为可能。现在，可以把石油和生成它的岩页进行对比，用来确定潜在的生油岩、它们生油或生气的倾向，以及它们的热成熟度水平。要形成商业性油气藏，必须满足5个条件：1. 必须有富含有机质的原岩以产生石油和/或天然气；2. 源岩必须经受足够的热演化以生成石油；3. 必须有足够容纳排出的油气的储集层。该储集层必须具有孔隙度来存储油和/或气，以及渗透性而让流体流动；4. 储集层必须被非渗透性的盖层所封闭，以防止油气向上逸散到地表；5. 源岩、储集层和盖层必须合理地分布来圈闭石油。From the earliest days of scientific investigation the formation of petroleum had been attributed to two origins: inorganic origin- ometimes igneous , sometimes extraterrestrial ,or a mixture of both. Most petroleum geologist believe that petroleum forms from the diagenesis of buried organic ones . The advent of cheap and accurate chemical analytical techniques allowed petroleum source rocks to be studied. It is now possible to match petroleum with its parent shale and to identify potential source rocks, their tendency to generate oil or gas , and their level of thermal maturation.For a commercial oil accumulation to occur, five conditions must be fulfilled:1. There must be an organic-rich source rock to generate the oil and/or gas .2. The source rock must have been heated sufficiently to yield its petroleum.3. There must be a reservoir to contain the expelled hydrocarbons. This reservoir must have porosity , to contain the oil and/or gas ,and permeability, to permit fluid flow.4. The reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable cap rock to prevent the upward escape of petroleum to the earths surface.5. Source, reservoir, and seal must be arranged in such a way as to trap the petroleum.UNIT3 Exploration Methods(勘探方法) In the early 1900s drillers finally realized that petroleum occurred in the tiny pore spaces in subsurface reservoir rocks and was concentrated in traps within the reservoir rocks. According to the so-called anticlines theory, oil accumulates in large, upward folds formed in reservoir rocks. Anticlines are often identified by the pattern of rock layers cropping out onto the surface of the ground. In the early 1900s oil and gas were found by mapping and drilling anticlines and domes identified at the grounds surface. 十九世纪初，钻探家最终认识到石油存在于地下储积岩的微小孔隙中，并且聚集在储积岩的圈闭中。根据所谓的背斜理论，石油聚集在储积岩石中形成的大型上隆褶皱中。背斜构造通常可根据出露地面的岩层产状来识别。十九世纪初，油气就是通过对地表上识别的背斜和穹窿构造的绘图和钻探而发现的。Geophysicists use three methods of oil exploration: magnetic, gravity, and seismic exploration. In magnetic exploration a magnetometer is used to determine the strength of the Earths magnetic field at a specific point on the Earths surface. In gravity exploration a gravity meter, or gravimeter, is used to determine the strength of the Earths gravity at a location. The magnetometer and gravity meter are used to locate hidden, subsurface petroleum traps. In seismic exploration sound is transmitted into the ground by an explosive, such as dynamite , or by a thumper truck. As the sound passes into the subsurface, it is reflected off by subsurface rock layers and returns to the surface as echoes. The echoes are detected and recorded at the surface with microphones. The recordings are processed to form a picture of subsurface rock layers. Seismic exploration also works well in the ocean. Computers are used to enhance the subsurface picture form sound waves.地球物理学家通过三种方法进行石油勘探：磁力、重力和地震勘探。在磁力勘探中，用磁力仪测定地球表面某一点的地球磁场强度。在重力勘探中，用重力测定仪或重力计测定某一点的地球重力场强度。磁力计和重力计用来确定地下隐藏的石油圈闭的位置。在地震勘探中，通过用爆炸物（如甘油炸药或重锤车）将声波传入地下。当声波向地下传播时，被地下的岩层反射回地面，称为反射波。反射波在地面可用检波器进行检测和记录，这些记录经过处理可以形成地下岩层的图像。地震勘探在海洋中也很有效。计算机可用来提高声波形成的地下图像的质量。EX：原油储量是指从已知油田的油井中将来可望产出原油的估计数量。世界已发现常规油田的可采石油的总量约为一万亿桶。其中约67%的世界储量分布在沙特阿拉伯、科威特、伊朗、伊拉克等中东国家。石油是不可再生的资源。和数目不同，石油一旦从地下采出，就不可再生。原油在地下岩层深处通过自然过程形成的速度很慢，在实验室中还从未形成过。从源岩中的有机物到原油的形成至少需要几百万，现存的原油量是有限的。The term oil reserves refers to the estimated amount of crude oil that is expected to be produced in the future from wells in known oil fields. The total amounts of recoverable oil already found in the worlds conventional oil fields amounts to about 1 trillion barrels. About 67 percent of the worlds reserves was in the Middle Eastern countries of Saudi Arabia ,Kuwait, Iran, Iraq et al.Petroleum is considered a nonrenewable resource. Unlike trees, it cannot be replaced once it is removed from the ground . Crude oil forms very slowly by natural processes deep in subsurface rocks and has never been formed in laboratories. The generation of crude oil from organic matter in a source rock requires at least several million years. There is a limited amount of crude oil in existence.UNIT4 Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Petroleum Exploration and Production(石油地质学和石油勘探、开发之间的关系)Geologists, in contrast to some nongeologists, believe that knowledge of the concepts of geology can help to find petroleum and, furthermore, often think that petroleum geology and petroleum exploration are synonymous, which they are not. Theories that petroleum is not formed by the transformation of organic matter in sediments have already been noted. If the petroleum geologists view of oil generation and migration are not accepted, then present exploration methods would need extensive modification.与非地质学家相比，地质学家相信地质学的概念知识能够帮助寻找石油，并且通常认为石油地质学和石油勘探是同义词，尽管它们不是同义的。关于石油不是由沉积物中的有机质转化而来的理论已经引起了人们的注意。如果石油地质学家关于石油生成和运移的观点没有被接受，那么现行的石油勘探方法将需要进行大幅度的调整。Some petroleum explorationists still do not admit to a need for geologists to aid them in their search. In 1982 a successful oil finder from Texas, admitted to not using geologists because when his competitors hired them, all it did was increase their costs per barrel of oil found. The South African state oil company(SOEKOR) was under a statutory obligation imposed by its government to test every claim to an oil-finding method, be it dowsing or some sophisticated scientific technique. These examples are not isolated cases, and it has been argued that oil may better be found by random drilling than by the application of scientific principles.一些石油勘探家仍不承认他们需要地质学家的帮助进行石油勘探。1982年，一位德克萨斯州成功的石油勘探者声称不需要地质学家，因为当他的竞争对手在雇佣了地质学家之后，结果只是增加了每桶原油的发现成本。南非国家石油公司在国家政府法律的强行规定下，对每种发现石油的方法必须进行验证，以便确认它们是找矿方法还是复杂的科学技术。这些例子都不是孤立的情况，人们一直在争论，使用随机钻井可能比采用科学原理更好的找到石油。Petroleum geology is only one aspect of petroleum exploration and production. Leaving aside atypical enterprises, petroleum exploration now involves integrated teams of people possessing a wide rang of professional skills. These skills include political and social expertise, which is involved in the acquisition of prospective acreage. Geophysical surveying is involved in the acquisition of prospective acreage. Geophysical surveying is involved in preparing the initial data on which leasing and , later, drilling recommendation are based. Geophysical conception are applied to the interpretation of the geophysical data once they have been acquired and processed. As soon as an oil well has been drilled, the engineering aspects of the discovery need appraisal. Petroleum engineering is concerned with establishing the reserves of a field, the distribution of petroleum within the reservoir, and the most effective way of producing it. Thus petroleum geology lies within a continuum of disciplines, beginning with geophysics and ending with petroleum engineering, but overlapping both in time and subject matter.石油地质学只是石油勘探和生产的一个方面。除去非典型的公司，现今的石油勘探需要掌握广泛专业技能的人员组成的综合团队。这些技能包括政治和社会知识，以便用于远景区块的并购。地球物理勘探为区块租赁以及后来的钻井建议提供原始数据。地质学概念应用于解释已采集的和处理的地球物理资料。一旦油井完钻，即需要对油气发现进行工程方面的评价。石油工程要考虑油田的储量，油藏中油气分布以及最有效的生产方式。因此，石油地质学位于一个连续的学科体系中，始于地球物理学、止于石油工程，但是在时间和主题上有交叉。EX：石油水平运移的距离一直以来都是人们争论的话题。这是一个很难测量的参数。一般它是靠实际测量石油聚集区和最近的源岩之间的距离来完成的。然而，成熟度和生油岩应该被界定。二维和三维研究方法都已经做过尝试，在石油被圈闭在泥岩中的砂岩透镜体内，石油移运是短距离的。而在那些圈闭周围没有明显临近生油岩的地方，肯定发生过大量的侧向运移。生油岩和石油之间的对比，可以通气相色谱的鉴别技术来实现。 Migration lateral distance to which petroleum can migrate has always been debated. It is a difficult parameter to measure. Traditionally, it is done by physically measuring the distance between the petroleum accumulation and the nearest source rock, however maturity and source rock might be defined. Both two- and three- dimensional studies have been attempted. Where oil is trapped in sand lenses surrounded by shale, the migrate distance must have been short. Where oil occurs in traps with no obvious adjacent source rock, extensive lateral migration must have occurred. Correlation between source rock and oil can be carried out by fingerprinting using gas chromatography.UNIT5 Geophysical Methods of Exploration (地球物理勘探方法)Petroleum exploration and production are largely concerned with the geological interpretation of geophysical data, especially in offshore areas. Petroleum geologists need to be well acquainted with the methods of geophysics. For many years a large communication barrier existed in many oil companies between the two groups, which were usually organized in different departments. This separation has now largely disappeared, as a new breed of petroleum geoscientist appears-half geologist and half geophysicist. Unfortunately, a new division has developed within the geophysical world between the mathematicians, physicists, and computer programmers (who acquire and process geophysical data) and those who use geological concepts to interpret this information.石油勘探和生产很大程度上与地球物理资料的地质解释密切相关，特别是在海上区域。石油地质学家需要非常熟悉地球物理学方法。多年来，在很多石油公司，通常隶属不同部门的地址和地球物理两个小组之间存在很大的交流障碍。而今，随着石油地球物理学家这一新的群体的出现，他们既是半个地质学家，又是半个地球物理学家，原有的两派分化现象在很大程度上已经消失。令人遗憾的是，在地球物理学领域，数学家、物理学家及计算机程序员（采集和处理地球物理资料）和那些应用地质学概念解释这些信息的人员之间又出现了新的分化。The following account of geophysical methods of petroleum exploration has two objectives. It seeks to explain the basic principles and to illustrate the wonders of modern geophysical display. What it does not pretend to do, however, is explain the arcane mathematics(神秘的数学) and statistical gymnastics(统计学的技巧) that are used to get from first principle