Critical Thinking.doc

Logical fallacy:Definition: an error in reasoning that obscures or misleads the audience. Language learning process:ListeningSpeakingReading (vocabulary+ grammar)Writing (logic-free)12 types of LOGICAL FALLACY:1. Hasty Generalization:把一个事物的局部特征当作整体特征，或者在证据不足的情况下匆忙下结论，或者用个人经验和孤立的例子取代严谨的论证，都是犯这类逻辑错误的表现。The following examples are manifestation of hasty generalization: mistaking partial traits as general feature, rushing into a conclusion without sufficient evidence or replacing rigorous demonstration with personal experience and insular examples.l 我的雪弗兰熄火了，所以雪弗兰车的质量不怎么好。“My Chevrolet shut down in the middle of the road, so all Chevrolet cars must be of / have poor quality.”l TOM欺负我，把我弄哭了，小男孩怎么都这么讨厌？！“Tom is a bully and he made me cry. Why are little boys so annoying?!”l 我们学校来了个日本同学，很有礼貌，看来日本学生都很有礼貌“The exchange student from Japan to my school is quite polite. Japanese students must be all polite.”2. False Cause (把关联关系当成因果关系)一件事情比另一件事情先发生，或者两者同时发生，并不说明这两件事情之间有因果关系，可能有共同的起因，或者只是巧合。因果关系：causal relationshipEither they share a common cause/ reason, or they took place at the same time by accident. When A happens before or with B, it doesnt necessarily mean A is the cause for B, but with mutual cause or pure random incidents. l 每次我爸一洗车天就下雨，所以下雨是我爸洗车造成的。It rains every time my dad washes his car, so the rain is brought by my fathers car-wash. l 我奶奶每天吃一颗生大蒜，她活到102岁，看来吃生蒜有助于健康长寿。 My grandmother eats raw garlic everyday and she lived up to 102 years old. So it looks like eating raw garlic helps extending life expectancy. l 我们学校学生这学期开始穿校服了，学生们这学期的考试分数也有了进步；所以，穿校服能提高学生们的学习成绩。 When students started wearing uniforms this semester, their scores went up. Therefore, uniforms improve scores. 3. Black or White (不是黑就是白)把黑和白作为仅有的可能，忽略其他可能性的存在；极端片面，忽略事物的多面性和复杂性。Assuming black and white as the only two possibilities of anything while ignoring the existence of other possibilities, this is extremely limited and ignorant of versatility and complexity of the world. l 911后，美国在反恐，作为美国公民，如果你不支持国土安全法，你就是在支持恐怖分子。 America has been fighting against terrorism since 911. As an American citizen, you are advocating terrorism if you dont vote for Homeland Security Act.Too little, too late.4. Slippery Slope Fallacy (滑坡谬误)夸大一个行为可能带来的后果，说事情A发生了， 就会导致事情Z的发生，因此阻止A的发生就会避免Z。其实，Z仅仅是一种对极端情况的臆测。不去仔细分辨A本身， 而是用Z引发人的恐惧心理，从而不能客观的决定是不是应该去做A。 By exaggerating a potential consequence of a conduct, people are misled to the mentality of fearing the occurrence of this negative potential result while paying little attention to analyze the situation itself. “One thing led to another.”l 如果你们对学校的午休规则提出修改意见，那么学校的校规将受到很大的质疑，学校从此将失去良好的秩序。If you have problems with/ raise different opinions about the lunch break rules of our school/ school rules of lunch break, (then) the authority of school regulations would be doubtful/ challenged. This way, sound orders would be compromised in school. l 如果我爸停止抽烟，他就会去酗酒或吸毒，所以他应该继续抽烟。People get addicted for a reason: addiction is the only thing that would never abandon you before you do so. Have drinking problems, become an alcoholic, be addicted to alcohol/ drinking. Binge drinking and eating. OverdoseQuit smoking.l 如果油价降低，石油消费就会大幅增加，石油资源就会很快枯竭，人类就会加速灭亡。Oil consumption would be increased significantly if oil price is lowered. This would lead to instant exhaustion of oil resources, which would eventually accelerate the extinction process of human race. 5. Bandwagon Fallacy (从众的谬误)因为很多人都在做同一件事或者相信同一件事，所以这件事就是对的。事实上，一个事物或观点的流行程度和它本身是否合理并没有必然关系。Something is legit simply because most people are doing or believing in the same thing. In fact, the popularity of a subject or a view has no inevitable relationship with its reasonability. l 我们班大多数学生都有手机了，所以我也应该有手机l 我认识的很多人都在支持Donald trump做总统，他应该会成为一个好总统，所以我也支持他当总统。Advocator/ supporter/ vote forMost people I know6. Sentimental Appeal (诉诸情感的谬误)避开基于事实和真相的严谨论述，通过操纵他人情感获得认同。每个人都容易被自己的感情所支配，通过激发一个人的内在感情，包括恐惧、嫉妒、怜悯和骄傲等，可以把人的注意力从事实和真相转移。这种手法，虽然不诚实，但是对很多人却非常有效。To get approval or acceptance by manipulating others sentimental emotions while avoiding rigorous reasoning based on facts and reality. People are easily affected by their emotions. So, their attentions can be distracted from the truth by evoking their internal feelings, including fear, jealousy, sympathy and pride.l 我支持Jack当班长，因为他妈妈一直在生病。His mum has been sick/ ill for a while.l 我知道你不喜欢这件毛衣，但这是你奶奶亲手织的，所以你该穿着这件毛衣去参加家庭聚会。Family reunion/ Homecoming party/ l 一个医疗机构用大量小白鼠做实验，遭到动物保护组织反对，于是设计了下面这个广告牌：小白鼠VS 孩子的生命，你想拯救谁？ Who would you rather see alive?Medical institute/ organization/ cooperationAgainst animal tests. / Anti-animal-test organization7. Appeal to Authority (诉诸权威的谬误)用权威人士的观点来取代严谨的论证。权威人士有可能对也有可能错，也可能受利益关系支配，不能因为这是来自权威人士的论述，就认为这是无可辩驳、完全正确的。e.g.When people replace rigorous argumentation with views of authorities, who could be either right or wrong or even manipulated by personal interests, it is unreasonable to consider them impeccable or indisputable simply because they were statements from/ made by authorities. 8. Ad Hominem- To the Man (论人不论事的谬误)不去谈这个人说的做的是否有道理而是把注意力引向他的人格、动机、态度、处境等“外部因素”，从而避开理性讨论，试图用对这个人的印象来取代他做的事情的理性判断。StereotypePeople are misled to pay more attention to the integrity, motivation/ intention, attitude/ mentality, circumstances and other external factors of an individual or a group instead of the reasonability/ rationality of their speech and deed/behavior/conduction/ action itself. Hence, they try to confuse the audience from making rational discussion by distracting them with potentially biased impression of a subject. 9. Straw Man Fallacy (歪曲别人观点的“稻草人”谬误)对别人的言论、观点进行夸张、歪曲、捏造，使得自己能够轻松的攻击别人，在听众心目中造成对自己有利的印象。用稻草人来比喻这种情况，是因为稻草人本身是薄弱的，所谓打击稻草人，就是专门剪出来别人论述里的一些薄弱细节，加以歪曲和攻击。In order to attack others with ease and leave advantageous impression with the audience, people choose to exaggerate, distort and fabricate others speech and opinions.The reason choosing straw man as a metaphor is because of its vulnerability. So-called attacking the straw man is to distort and attack the weak arguments in others statement that were cut out purposely to fit their distortion. vulnerable/ fragile, Exaggeration, distortion, fabricationAttack the weakest argument even if it isnt representative.10. Tu Quoque- Appeal to Hypocrisy(用批评别人的失误来转移别人对自己的批评)用批评回复批评。别人批评了你，你不正面回应他批评的是否正确，而是反过来又去批评他，你不也是么。还有一种情