LINGUISTICS.doc

LINGUISTICSChapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language (p.1). 1.1.1 The aim of linguisticsThis study aims at exploring the common properties that characterize all human languages and therefore linguists are interested in all human languages (living and dead, spoken and written).1.1.2 Linguistics as a science(1) The process a. Make observations of linguistic facts and collect sufficient data and describe them; b. Make generalizations 一般化about the facts observed; c. Formulate明确地表达 hypotheses 假定to account for the facts observed; d. Test the hypotheses against further observations; e. Develop a theory about how language is constructed.(2) The principles (p.1) a. Exhaustiveness（广泛性）：One should gather all the materials relevant to investigation. b. Consistency（统一性）: There should not be contradiction and inconsistency between different parts of the total statement. c. Economy（经济性）: The linguistic structure under investigation should be maximally generalized. d. Objectivity（客观性）:This requires us to be as objective as possible in the description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence our generalization.1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar (p.2)(1) Traditional grammar: This school begins with the Greeks and the grammar of Thrax about 400B.C. It is continued by classical Latin grammarians from the 1st century to 6th century. It is characterized by the analysis based on the hypothesis that Latin Grammar is universally applicable for all languages.(2) F. de Saussure (the founder of modern linguistics) and his contributions: Language as a system of symbols; The arbitrariness恣意as the nature of linguistic symbols; The distinction between langue语言and parole语言(p.16); The distinction between synchronic完全同步的and diachronic历经时间长河的study of language (p.15); The distinction between syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的properties of linguistic structure (p.17). Signified受指 & Signifier信号物(3) Chomsky and his contributions: Language is defined as a set of rules; Competence能力and performance (p.16); Innateness天赋hypothesis; Deep structure and surface structure.1.3 The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar (p.2)(1) Descriptive描写的and prescriptive规范的(p.15);(2) Spoken form vs. written form;(3) Attitude towards the function of Latin Grammar;(4) Attitude towards language change;(5) Scope范围of interest.1.4 The scope of linguistics (p.4) Phonetics （语音学） Phonology （音系学） Morphology （形态学） Syntax （句法学） Semantics （语义学） Pragmatics （语用学）1.5 Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.5) Psycholinguistics （心理语言学） Sociolinguistics （社会语言学） Cognitive linguistics （认知语言学） Computational linguistics （计算语言学） Stylistics （文体语言学） Discourse analysis （语篇分析） Neurolinguistics （神经语言学） Applied linguistics （应用语言学）The scope or major branches of linguistics Theoretical linguistics1. Phonetics2. Phonology3. Morphology4. Syntax5. Semantics Use of linguistics1. Applied linguistics2. Sociolinguistics3. Psycholinguistics 1.6 The nature of language (p.8)1.6.1 What does “language” mean? Specific utterances表达or expressions one uses in speech or in writing in particular circumstances. Ones idiolect.个人习语 A variety of speech or writing. /A particular system or particular purpose in particular situation. A particular abstract抽象system underlying潜在的the totality of speech behavior of a community. The universal properties characterizing all human natural languages.1.6.2 The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal元音symbols used for human communication (p.8). a. The symbolic nature of language. b. The linguistic symbol is arbitrary. c. Language is vocal. d. Language is systematic. e. The basic function of language is for communication. f. Language is human specific. 1.6.3 Defining features of human language (p.10) Arbitrariness (任意性) Duality （二重性） Creativity /productivity（创造性） Interchangeability (互换性) Displacement （移位性) Specialization (特殊性) Cultural transmission （文化传递性）a. Arbitrariness任意Arbitrariness - There is not a logical and necessary connection between sounds and meanings in human language.(1) Animals vocal communication system has a fixed one-to-one固定的一对一 connection between sound patterns and specific objects or events. Besides, the sound patterns of animals are quite limited in number and the objects being referred to are also limited.(2) An onomatopoeia拟声is a word made up by imitating模仿the natural sound. Some may argue that language is non-arbitrary非任意的. e.g: the clang叮当声of a bell the ticks of a clock But onomatopoeias are small in number in any language.(3) Compound words合成词are non-arbitrary in the sense that there is a necessary connection between the two elements in each of them. e.g: postman Each element of a compound is entirely arbitray. Why did English people call him a “man”, but not a “dog”?b. Duality二重性Duality - Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Primary level - morphemes词素, words, phrases and sentences which are meaningful.Secondary level - a sequence of meaningless sounds or segments片段which combine to form the units of meaning. Meaningful: sentences: The girls are going shopping.phrases: NP VPwords: the + girls + are + going + shoppingmorphemes: the + girl + s +be +s+ go + ing + shop+ ingMeaningless: syllables音节: + g:lz + a: + gu + i + p + isounds: + + g + : + l +z + a: + g +u + i + + +p + i + c. ProductivityProductivity - A speaker of any language has the ability to produce a sentence he has never heard before and to understand any sentence he hears for the first time. e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates whoQ: Do you think the sounds the parrots produce have the feature of creativity? K: No. parrots can only draw their calls from the fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. d. Interchangeability可交换性Interchangeability - Man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.e. Displacement移位Displacement is a property性质of language enabling people to talk about things remote遥远的either in space or in time. Language can refer to things removed from the immediate直接的situations of the speaker; it can be used to refer to things or events which are not present (real or imagined, in the past, present or in future).Q: Do you think the bee dance has the feature of displacement as human language? A: The bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. Bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires. Whats more, they do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate推测about future discoveries. f. Specialization特殊化Specialization - Man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached分离manner.e.g: A mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. g. Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of learning but not genetically.从遗传学角度 Q: Why cant Tarzan, a human being, understand human language? A: Language is culturally transmitted传输. The ability to speak a language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning, but not genetically.1.6.4 Origin of language (p.9) Ding-dong theory: primitive原始的简单的man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered遇到 Sing-song歌咏theory: primitive ritual仪式songs of praise Pooh-pooh发呸声theory: interjections感叹词which express the speakers emotions Ye-he-ho theory: the cries叫喊uttered发出while working Ta-ta再见theory: combination of certain gestures and tongue movements Bow-wow狗汪汪叫声theory: imitation of animal cries and other sounds in nature1.7 Functions of language (p.13) Informative教育性的function: declarative陈述的sentences Phatic交流感情的communion: farewells, comments on weather Directive function: imperatives祈使句 Interrogative疑问词function: questions Expressive function: My God! Evocative唤起的function: jokes, advertising, propaganda宣传 Performative述行成分function: I declare宣布the meeting open.1.8 Important distinctions区别in linguistics (p.15)(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述与规定）(two types of linguistic study): If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is descriptive；if the study aims to prescribe规定how things ought to be (to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language), it is prescriptive. a. Do/Dont say X. b. People do/dont say X.(2) Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时与历时） (two types of linguistic descriptive study): A synchronic description takes a fixed instant一个固定的即时as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. Exercises: a. a study of the development of the Indo-European tonguesb. a study of Shakespeares language(3) Langue & parole (Saussure, early 20th century)（语言与言语）: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic抽象的语言system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization实现of langue in actual use.(4) Competence & Performance (Chomsky, 1950s)（语言能力/语言运用）Competence is an ideal language users underlying潜在的knowledge about the system of rules; performance is the actual use of language in concrete实在的situations. Question for discussion: What is the difference between Saussures langue, parole and Chomskys competence and performance?They differ in that Saussure took a sociological社会学的view of language and his notion概念of langue is a matter of social conventions惯例, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence能力is a property of the mind of each individual. (5) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系） a. Syntagmatic (horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. E.g: The boy kicked the ball. *Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic语法的)*The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.Syntagm （组合） Sounds after sounds; words following words Horizontal水平线 relations Temporal暂时的sequence E.g.: syntagmatic: She can go I may come You might leaveb. Paradigmatic词形变化的relation (associative联合的/ vertical垂直的/ choice选择relation):A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. E.g. _ is smiling. The boyThe womanThe teacher The constraint约束in a paradigmatic词形变化的is syntactic句法的only.Paradigm （聚合） Range of alternative signs范围内可选择的迹象 Choice relations Vertical sequence纵向序列 E.g.: paradigmatic词形变化的IRA terrorists scum(渣滓, 卑贱的人) active units paramilitaries (辅助军队成员) freedom fighters lunatics （疯子, 狂人）The horizontal syntagmatic组合关系的 axis轴is the realm领域of combination. Conversely相反地, the vertical垂直的 paradigmatic词形变化的axis is the realm of selection选择 and substitution. 代替(6) Functionalism机能主义and formalism形式主义:Functionlism or functional linguistics refers to the study of forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes in the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology1. Speech soundsSounds which are systematically声音系统used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring打鼾, sneezing打喷嚏).2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics? (p.25)The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification分类.Three areas of phonetics: (p.26)n Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学): production of speech sounds生产语音n Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学): perception of speech sounds感知的语音n Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学): physical properties of speech sounds物理特性的语音2.2 Speech organs (p.27)1- nasal鼻骨cavity腔2- lips嘴唇3- teeth牙齿4- alveolar ridge牙槽嵴5- hard palate硬腭6- velum软腭(soft palate)7- uvula小舌8- apex顶点(tip) of tongue9- blade刀锋(front前) of tongue10- dorsum背部(back) of tongue11- oral cavity口腔12- pharynx咽13- epiglottis会厌；喉头盖14- larynx喉头15- vocal cords声带16- trachea气管17- esophagus食道Division of vocal organs:According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs发声器can be divided into three parts: initiator发起人of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonator.共鸣器2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:(1) The initiator includes the lungs肺and the trachea气管;(2) The direction of the airstream气流:n outgoing/ pulmonic肺的: in all languagesn Non-pulmonic sounds与肺无关的声音: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives (内爆音in Sindhi信德语, Igbo伊博人)2.2.2 The vocal cords声带(the producer of voice)(1) Pitch音高depends on the rate of vibration振动of the vocal cords.(2) Vocal cords:n Complete blockage堵塞(totally closed) for producing glottal喉音stop : eni iditn Vibrating振动(close together) to produce voiced sounds: m b g z e in Not vibrating (apart) to produce voiceless sounds: p h t2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier扩音器and modifier调节器)(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)(2) Nasal cavity鼻腔(3) Oral cavity口腔n active主动的；有效的articulators发音之人或物: lips, uvular(小舌), the tonguen Passive被动的，消极的articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)2.3 IPA国际音标and broad and narrow transcription音译 2.3.1 IPA n International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标n International Phonetic Association (1886)国际语音学学会2.3.2 Phonetic transcription标音法: The method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcriptionn Broad transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.n Narrow transcription: the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail.Examples:Narrow transcription: purephwju : aspirated送气音的labialized被唇音化的palatalized使颚音化bedbed slightly longfarmf:m nasalized使鼻音化 apple p velarized使软腭化bacon bein glottal stop喉塞音Broad transcription: purepju2.4 Classification of English speech sounds (p.31)2.4.1 Consonants 辅音(p.32)Consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction阻碍of airstream at some point in the vocal tract声道.2.4.1.1 Place of articulation发音部位2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation发音方法2.4.1.3 Voicing发言；牵动声带2.4.1.4 Description of consonants辅音的描述 2.4.1.1 Place of articulation(p.32)Bilabials双唇的: p b m wLabiodentals:唇齿音 f vDentals:齿音 Alveolars:齿槽音 t d s z l n rPalatals:腭音的 舌面中音的 t d jVelars:软腭音，舌根音 k g Retroflex:卷舌音 rGlottal:喉音声门音 h (button bn)Pharyngeal:咽部 (latter l)2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation (p.33)n Stops/ plosives:爆破音 oral stops: p b t d k g nasal鼻音stops: m n n Nasals:鼻腔音 m n n Fricatives:摩擦音 f v s z hn Affricates:破擦音 t d n Liquids:流音 l rn Glides:滑行 j w (semi-vowels)The IPA consonant辅音chart:White represents standard British English consonants.2.1.4.3 Voicing (P.30)n Voiceless: p t k s f t hn Voiced: b d g z v d m n j w r l2.4.1.4 Description of consonants p: voiceless bilabial双唇音 stopb: voiced bilabial stops: voiceless alveolar齿槽音fricative摩擦音kh: voiceless velar软颚音aspirated送气音的stopn: voiced alveolar nasal鼻音2.4.2 Vowels (p.34)Vowels元音are speech sounds in the production of which no articulators构音器官 come very close together and the airstream气流passes through the vocal tract声道without obstruction障碍.2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音2.4.2.2 Description of vowels2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音；复合元音& triphthongs三合元音2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音Monophthongs: The quality of sound remains constant不变的throughout the articulation. (1) The tongue height (2) The position of the highest part of the tongue body (3) The lip-rounding圆唇 (4) The length (5) The tension (6) How open the mouth is openedVowel quadrilateral四边形( Daniel Jones)2.4.2.2 Description of vowelsi: high front tense (long) unrounded vowelu high back lax (short) rounded vowel low back lax (short) rounded vowel central lax (short) unrounded vowel2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音& triphthongs三元音 (P.35)Diphthongs A single movemen