应用语言学知识点总结.doc

Josy lee 教材课程应用语言学 复习知识点总结Chapter 4 first language acquisition Differences between Saussure and Chomsky Saussures objective is to describe the language system(langue),but parole is an individual act. Saussure is more concerned with its sociological aspect. Chomskys objective is to characterize the native speakers knowledge of the system of his language (competence). Chomsky is more concerned with its psychological aspect.How is the first language acquired?Traditional assumption: imitation and practice Chomskys creative hypothesis-testing-language acquisition is based on the childs discovery of a deep and abstract theory-a generative grammar of his language (child hear all kinds of utterance, but he choose only what fits his needs. His own utterances (performance)are original and novel.)The deepest structure of all language may be the same-Universal Grammar(UG) in Chomskys theory.Major L1 acquisition theories-the process of L1 acquisition 1,Behaviorist theories :These theories follow the empiricist approach, emphasizing that the only way of knowing anything is by experiencing it physically.Basic tenet原则 : since one cannot observe his internal states, which is regarded as a “black box”, hence one can not know anything about them, any statements about the internal states or process are meaningless. The only meaningful statements about the organism concern what goes into it(stimulus)and what comes out of it(response).Objective : is to discover and create predictable relationship/association between stimulus and response.1) imitation-reinforcement theories - skinner Basic idea: verbal behavior, like other human behaviors, is controlled by its consequences. In the process of first language acquisition, if a certain correct response is repeatedly reinforced, it is conditioned and becomes a habit, then finally the child acquires his native language.2) mediation theories-to fill the “black box”Basic ideal : two thing connecting with a third thing tend to be in associating with each other. One the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.Mowrers theory: a word is a conditioned stimulus while the thing to which the word refers is the unconditioned stimulus.Osgoods theory : three-stage meditational model: sensory, representational and integrational.2. Cognitive theoriesThese theories follow the rationalist approach, being more concern with the actual linguistic-processing abilities of the individual.Objective: to the discovery of new kinds of mental events.1) Nativist theories( the innateness hypothesis)This is lied by Chomsky.Basic idea : the child is born with the biological basic for the acquisition of language, which enables them to develop a grammar that will incorporate all thecommon feature of human language.Chomsky call this as Universal Grammar(UG) and claim the existence of “ black English” which he calls as Language Acquisition Device(LAD).McNeil constructed the hypothetical grammar of child language(pivot grammer).This theory account for aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity of child language.2) Cognitive theories 认知学派Chapter 5 second language learning The nature of second language learning 1)Native-like proficiencythe goal of second language learning Three components of L2 proficiency :1) Grammatical competence: (i.e linguistic competence )vocabulary, pronunciation, grammatical structure and word form.2) Sociolinguistic competence: (i.e communicative competence)- sociocultural rules for using language appropriately, discourse rules for thinking parts of a language text coherently and cohesively.3) Strategic competence: (i.e L2 leaners ability to compensate for problem in communication)verbal and non-verbal communication strategies.Major2 learning theories-the nature and process of L2 learning1. The interlanguage theoryDefinition: (Ronald Carte)is a transitional stage in learning a second or foreign language. language system bordering on the first language and the target language.Larry Selinker first used this term to refer to “ the attempted meaningful performance”Corder explained: “is the collective name of second language learners versions of target languages and call it transitional competence. Premises: 1) the learner constructs a grammar, a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production.2 the learners grammar is permeable.3) The leaners competence is transitional.4) The learners performance is variable.5) Interlanguage development reflects cognitive learning strategies and communication strategies.6) The interlanguage system may fossilize.The principle characteristics:1) Interlanguage system is “reduced” or “simplified” system and have “restricted functions”.2) Interlanguage system is dynamic. 2. Monitor theory -the laws governing L2acquisition Developed by S. Krashen and contain five hypothesis 1)The acquisitionlearning hypothesis (the most fundamental of all the five ) Basic idea: adult have two independent ways of developing competence in a second language-language acquisition and language learning. The former is subconscious process and latter is conscious process.2)The monitor hypothesisBasic idea: acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally, acquisition “initiates” our utterances and be responsible for our fluency. Learning act as a Monitor and Editor in L2 language learning. Three conditions for monitoring: Thus, conscious learning play a limited role in L2 performance and only three conditions are met may be it used.- 1)having time 2)Focusing on form 3)Knowing the rule3)The natural order hypothesis Basic idea : there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language. Average order(English as a second language)：ING(progressive)/PLURAL/COPULA(“to be”)- AULILIARY(progressive, as in “he is going”)/ARTICLE(a,the)- Irregular past-regular past/iii singular/possessive Three requirement for presenting rules: Learnable/portable/not yet acquired4)The input hypothesis-how we acquire languageBasic idea : learners acquire language as sa result of comprehending input addressed to them. we acquire L2 by understanding language that contain structure a bit beyond our current level of competence. (i+1) Once our communication is successful and the input is understood, the production emerges. 分类：premodified input: is material that is finely tuned in advance to the learners current level. Interactively modified input: is material (usually spoken discourse)that is modified when the teacher and the learner interact.-结论：课堂有其重要性，因为能大量提供INPIT5)The affective filter hypothesis-the relationship between affective filter and the second language acquisition Basic idea : L2 acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their affective filters. While he claims that the input plays the primary role in L2 acquisition and the filter affective variables act to impede or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device.Summary of Monitor Theories- 1)Acquisition is more important that learning2)two conditions to acquire a second language Comprehensible input(a bit beyond the)A low or weak affective filter5)The creative construction modelDeveloped by M. Burt and H. Dulay and based on Chomskys linguistic theory of “creative aspect of language use” Basic idea : refers to a process in which the learners gradually reconstruct rules for speech they hear, guided by their innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothesis about the language system being acquired, utile the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produced is resolved. It propose the internal creativity mechanism 图：the language environment provides the input for mental processing and the leaners verbal performance is the output. Three processing mechanism is involved.Affective filterLanguage learners do not take in everything they hear. The affective filters, like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, controls the entry of input.Cognitive organizer It responsible for the leaners gradual organization of the new language system.Linguistic monitorIt responsible for a kind of self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic forms, using conscious rules to produce sentences.Chapter 9 Contrastive Analysis and Error AnalysisContrastive Analysis Basic idea: by the comparison and contrast of two or more language to determine the differences and similarities of two language, and the ultimate goal is to identify the difficulties of L2learning. (or to predicate what area will be easy and what will be difficult.)Theoretical bases-behaviorism and structuralism Basic assumption : 1)L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language.(Grass and Selinker)2)the main difficulties in L2 learning are caused by interference from the L1.3)CA can predict or account for difficulties in L2 learning.4)CA can reduce the difficulties and facilitate L2 learning.Major object : providing insight into similarities and difficulties. Predicating problems in L2 learning. Developing course materials for language taching.Error AnalysisBasic idea: Corder claimed EA is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners interlanguage and the target language system. It is a methodology of describing L2 learners language system. Two justification: to understanding the nature of errors and to eradicate them. / is necessary to an understanding of the process of second language acquisition.对比：CA aimed to predicate errors resulting from L1, which failed to account for other types of errors. While EA compare the learners interlanguage and the target language.Tow Source of errors: Interlingual errors(transfer errors): it occurs when learner misuse an item because it shares some features with an item in the native language. Intralingual errors(developmental errors): errors within the target language itself. OVERGENERALIZATIONTypes of errors : Process of EA: Recognition-Description-ExplanationExplanation: the source of errors: interlingual transfer(the interference of the first language) / Intralingual transfer(overgeneration of the rules of the target languge)Two issues: Fossilization : the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a persons second language competence. Pidginization : refers to the process by which a pidgin develops. The learner instinctively attempts to bring two languages together, which results in aspects of both. Chapter 11 Language Testing Test E. Ingran“ a test is a measuring device which we use when we want to compare an individuals who belong to the same group”Brown - “ a test is a method of measuring a persons ability or knowledge in a given area.”Requirements for a good testvalidity, reliability, discrimination and practicality.1 , Validity: the most important requirement. It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. Face validity, content validity, construct validity, empirical vality.Face validity : 外行人 it refers to the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment. Its superficial.Content validity :内行人 it refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out to measure. Construct validity : 能力的测试 It assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory( the construct) on which the test is based. Eg: 英语语言能力的测试（听说读写译）Bachman : it is concerned with the extent to which performance on tests is consistent with prediction that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities or constructs. Empirical ValidityBasic idea : measure the validity of a test by comparing the test with one or more criterion measures. It contains two ways: concurrent validity(comparing the test with other valid tests at the same time) and predictive validity(comparing the test with other valid tests or other performance criteria obtained at a later time). The only difference is time.2 , Reliability - stability and consistency of test scoresValidity ensures the meaningfulness of a test, reliability ensures its consistency. It is a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results.A test is reliable, if it meets the above four conditions : 1)a test is given to a group of students on different occasions2)two parallel forms of the test are given tom the same group on different occasions3)the test is scored by the same scorer on different occasions4)the test is scored by two or more competent scorers.Four factors affect the reliability:1) the extent of the sample material selected for testing-the bigger, the more reliable2) the administration of the test:同一考试在不同的时间，不同对象下结果相同。3) scoring the test4) test instructions:考试相关要求5) personal factor three ways to measure reliability:1)test-retest reliability相同的考试在不同时间考2)parallel reliability- 几个parallel tests给同一对象 3)split-half reliability- 一场考试分为两半执行Types of language test1 , Tests distinguished by useAchievement tests, or attainment tests 结业考试(特别是 课程考试)Aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.Proficiency tests 能力考试 过级考试“四六级”没有教科书的，Aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform.区别：The A test looks back on what should have been learned from a particular course or syllabus. While the P test looks forward, measuring the leaners general level of language mastery. The difference lies in the way they are prepared and interpreted.Aptitude tests 学能考试（还没学过的语言）It is designed to measure the leaners probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn, assessing his aptitude for learning a language and predicting his probable strengths and weakness in learning a second language.区别：the P test is took place at some point after learning has started and relating the leaners linguistic knowledge to future non-linguistic performance. The Ap test is took place before learning aL2 and aims to predict the learners inherent aptitude for language learning.Diagnostic tests It is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know and to diagnose their areas of difficulties, to enable teacher to identify areas of problem so as to plan the most appropriate remedial program. Placement tests 分班考试It is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in a program or course or to sort new students into approximately teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at proximately the same level.2, distinguished by standard for measuring Criterion-reference tests 标准参照(有及格线的)It measure a students performance according to a particular external criterion which has been agreed upon. He must reach this level of performance in order to be admitted.Norm- reference tests 常模参照(以考试的人群为依据, 有录取比例)It measures the performance of a student or a group of students comparing with the performance of other students whose scores are used as a norm.区别：the major difference between these two types of T is the standard used. The scores in the former test in interpreted with reference to the criterion that is generally agreed, while the score in the latter test is interpreted in the reference to the behavior of other students, which is set up as a norm.Interpreting test result Measure of central tendency-median中位数, arithmetic mean平均数, mode众数，range范围，standard deviation（SD）标准差,variance 方差，percentile ranks(or scales)百分位排位SD-whether the distribution of a score is normal. SD=1/N *(xi-x平)2 PR-it indicates the position of a given score in a distribution divide into 100 ranks. The higher the PR is, the better one is in the test.Chapter 11 linguistics and syllabus designA clarification of Term: syllabus and curriculum区：in some sense, syllabus is part of a curriculumSyllabus : is specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodologyCurriculum : provides 1) general statement about the rationale of language, language learning and language teaching.2) Detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose3) Implementation of a program Other difference: Syllabus used to refer something similar to a language teaching approach-more pedagogicalCurriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.-educational planning issue.Theoretical Views behind syllabus DesignTypes of syllabus 1) structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered.Shortcomings: 1 concentrated only on the grammatical forms and the meaning of individual words. 2 communicative incompetence, not taught how to use these sentence in real situation.2) The situational syllabus Hold the idea that language is used for communication,