【经营管理】组织行为学.doc

Class 5.Motivation Theory5.1 concept Motivation: the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need Need:some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive Process:unsatisfied need-tension-drives-search behavior-satisfied need-reduction of tension5.2 Early theory of Motivation The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts.3 specific theories were formulated during this time1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow There is a hierarchy of 5 needs-physiological, safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization-and as each need is sequentially satisfied,the next need becomes dominant Separation:Lower order needs-needs that are satisfied externally; physiological & safety needs review:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding, receiving wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. 2.little empirical support2.Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor proposed 2 distinct views of human being The assumption that employees dislike work,are lazy,dislike responsibility,& must be coerced to perform employees dislike work &,whenever possible,will attempt to avoid it; They must be coerced,controlled,or threatened with punishment to achieve goals; avoid responsibilities & seek formal direction whenever possible; Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work & will display little ambition Theory Y: The assumption that employees like work,are creative,seek responsibility,& can exercise self-direction higher order needs dominate individuals3. Motivation-Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg, individuals relation to his work Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction satisfaction, No satisfaction Hygiene factors:those factors-such as company policy & administration,supervision,& salary-that,when adequate in job,placate workers.When these factors are adequate,people will not be dissatisfied5.2 Contemporary theory of Motivation having one thing in common:each has a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation1.ERG theory Clayton Alderfer of Yale reworked Maslows theory to align it more closely with the empirical research There are 3 groups of core needs:existence, relatedness,& growth Difference:(1)more than 1 need may be operative at the same time,(2)if the gratification of a higher level needs is stifled,the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases Maslow: a rigid steplike progression. ERG:contains a frustration-regression dimension Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives of Spain & Japan place social needs before their physiological requirements2.McClellands theory of needs Ach,pow,aff are 3 important needs that help to understand Mo Achievement need:The drive to excel,to achieve in relation to a set of standards,to strive to succeed nPow:the desire to make others behave in a way that they would not otherwise have behaved in nAff: the desire for friendly & closely interpersonal relationships High achievers preferring personal responsibility,feedback, moderate risks-successful in entrepreneurial activities, salespeople & running a self-contained unit within a large organization; The best managers are high-power need & low-affiliation need,level in a hierarchical organization3.Cognitive Evaluation Theory may be relevant to that set of jobs that falls in between-neither extremely dull nor intersting Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarded tends to decrease the overall level of motivation Explanation:the individual experiences a loss of control over his behavior so the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes; the elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce a shift-from an external to an internal explanation If extrinsic rewards are to be effective motivators,they should be made contingent on an individuals performance? Independent? Substitution? Test done with students; high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impacts of extrinsic rewards4.Goal-setting Theory in the late 1960s Edwin Locke proposed that intention to work to a goal is a major source of motivation The theory that specific & difficult goals lead to higher performance. Specificity,challenge,feedback the specificity of the goal act as an internal stimulus than the generalized goal; Factors like ability & acceptance given,difficult goals exert a high level of effort; feedback helps identify discrepancies between the advance & goal. Self-generated feedback(monitoring his own progress) -a more powerful motivator; Participative goals may have no superiority over assigned goals when acceptance is taken as a given, participation add the odds that harder goals be agreed5.Reinforcement theory Moderator: goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, national culture self-efficacy: the individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task; Culture bound: low power distance & uncertainty avoidance,high in quality of life; not in Portugal, Chile reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences. Strictly speaking,its not a theory of motivation 6.Equity theory Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any inequities 4 referent comparisons: Self-inside-ones experience in a different position inside his current organization; Self-outside; Other-inside; Self-outside Minor qualifications:1.people have a great deal more tolerance of overpayment inequities than of underpayment inequities. 2.not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent types 4 propositions relating to inequitable pay: Given payment by time,the overrewarded produce more than equitably paid employees; the underrewarded produce less or poorer quality of output Given payment by quantity of production,the overrewarded produce fewer,but higher quality,units than equitably paid employees; the underrewarded produce a large number of low-quality units. Distributive justice:perceived fairness of the amount & allocation of rewards among individuals. satisfaction Procedural justice:perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. commitment7.Expectancy theory help to explain why workers arent motivated on their jobs & merely do the minimum necessary to get by The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome & on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual Effort-performance relationship,skill,appraisal system,subj performance-reward relationship, incentive scheme,stable reward-personal goal relationship8.Ability & opportunity success on a job is constrained by support resources Opportunity to perform:high value of performance are partially a function of an absences that constrain the employee =f(A,M,O) Integration Culture boundClass 6.Applications of Motivation6.1 Management by Objective A program that encompasses specific goals,particularly set,for an explicit time period,with feedback on goal progressMBO 4 ingredients:goal specificity,participative D-M,an explicit time period,& performance feedback Converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members objectives cascade down through the organization: overall organizational,divisional,departmental, individual objectives Linking MBO and Goal-setting theory:specific hard goals.Area of possible disagreement-participation MBO In practiceClass 6.Applications of Motivation6.2 Behavior Modification A program where managers identify performance-related employee behaviors & then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors & weaken undesirable performance behaviors OB Mod Emery Air Fright use containers 5-step problem-solving model: (1)identification of performance-related behaviors;(2)measurement of the behaviors; (3) identification of behaviors contingencies; (4)development & implementation of an intervention strategy;(5)evaluation of performance improvement Reinforcement theoryClass 6.Applications of Motivation6.3 Employee Involvement A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees & is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organizations success Examples of participative management:A process where subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superior representative participation:workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees Works councils: group of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel Board representatives:a form of representative participation. Employees sit on a companys board of directors & represent the interests of the firms employees Examples of Quality circle: a work group of 8-10 employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems,investigate causes,recommend solutions,& take corrective actions Management retains control over the final decision; improve productivity;a simple device? Employee stock ownership plans(ESOPs):company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits Linking:Theory Y;ERG theory In practice Class 6.Applications of Motivation6.4 Variable pay A portion of an employees pay is based on some individual &/or organizational measurement4 of the widely used model Piece-rate pay plan:workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed Bonus Profit-sharing plans:organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a companys profitability Gainsharing:an incentive plan where improvement in group productivity determines the total amount of money that is allocated expectancy theory 6.5 Skill-based pay Pay levels are based on how many skills employee have or how many jobs they can do Flexibility,D