跨文化 第二章 communication and culture

.,Chapter2,CommunicationandCulture,.,CONTENTS,DefinitionsofCulture,CharacteristicsofCulture,1,2,目录,.,DefinitionsofCulture,1,.,Cultureisubiquitous,multidimensional,complexandall-pervasive.Definitionsofculturearenumerous.Kroeber&kluckhohn(1952)listed164definitionsoftheculturethattheyfoundintheanthropologyliterature.Cultureiseverything.Cultureisopera,artandballet.,narrow,.,HoebelandFrost:cultureisanintegratedsystemoflearnedbehaviorpatternswhicharecharacteristicofthemembersofasocietyandwhicharenottheresultofbiologicalinheritence.Tworeasons:1.Cultureislearned.2.Eachindividualisconfinedatbirthtoaspecificgeographiclocationandthusexposedtocertainmessageswhiledeniedothers,.,BatesandPlog:Cultureisasystemofsharedbeliefs,values,customs,behaviors,andartifactsthatthemembersofasocietyusetocopewiththeirworldandwithoneanother,andthataretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearning.,Thisdefinitionincludesnotonlypatternsofbehaviorbutalsopatternsofthoughts.,.,Finaldefinition:,Wedefinecultureasthedepositofknowledge,experience,beliefs,values,actions,attitudes,meanings,hierarchies,religion,notionsoftime,roles,spatialrelations,conceptsoftheuniverse,andartifactsacquiredbyagroupofpeopleinthecourseofgenerationsthroughindividualandgroupstriving.,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,2,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,Thediscoveryofculture,theawarenessthatitshapesandmoldsourbehavior,ourvaluesandevenourideas,therecognitionthatitcontainssomeelementofthearbitrary,canbeastartlingoranilluminatingexperience.Shapiro,.,Regardlessofhowmanydefinitionswecouldhaveexamined,therewouldhavebeenagreatdealofagreementconcerningtheeightmajorcharacteristicsofculture.a)Cultureislearned.b)Cultureistransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.c)Cultureisbasedonsymbols.d)Cultureissubjecttochangee)Cultureisintegrated.f)Cultureisethnocentric.g)Cultureisadaptive.,.,Tworeasons:,1.Aswemovethroughthesecharacteristics,thestrongconnectionbetweencultureandcommunicationwillbecomeapparent.2.Perhapsthismightbethefirsttimewehavebeenexposedtoculture.,.,TypesofCulture,DominantCultureUmbrellaCultureMainstreamCultureEuropeanAmericans,theoneinpower.,Question:whydowhitemalesmeettherequirementsofdominanceintheUnitedStates?,Theyareinpositionsofpowerineverysinglemajorinstitutioninthiscountry.Theirpowerenablesthemtodetermineandmanipulatethecontentandflowofthemessagesproducedbythoseinstitutions.Theirpowerallowthemtoinfluencewhatpeoplethink,whattheyaspiretobe,andwhattheytalkabout.,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,1.Cultureislearned.,2,.,Cultureislearned.,“thegroupsknowledgestoredup(inmemories,booksandobjects)forfutureuse”isatthecoreoftheconceptofculture.Allofusarebornwithbasicneedsneedsthatcreateandshapebehaviorbuthowwegoaboutmeetingthoseneedsanddevelopingbehaviorstocopewiththemislearned.,.,Enculturation,Enculturationisthetotalactivityoflearningonesculture.,Enculturationisconsciousorunconsciousconditioningoccurringwithinthatprocesswherebytheindividual,aschildandadult,achievescompetenceinaparticularculture.-Hobel&Frost,interaction,observation,imitation,Process:,.,Frominfancy,membersofaculturelearntheirpatternsofbehaviorandwaysofthinkinguntilmostofthembecomeinternalizedandhabitual.Welearnourcultureinmanywaysandfromavarietyofsources.,e.g.1.ThelittleboyintheUnitedStateswhosegrandfathertellshimtoshakehandswhenheisintroducedtoafriendofthefamilyislearningculture.,2.TheArabboywhoisreadingtheKoranwhenheorsheisonedayoldislearningculture.,.,3.TheIndianchildwholivesinahomewherethewomeneatafterthemenislearningculture.,4.TheJewishchildwhohelpsconductthePassoverceremonyislearningculture.,5.TheFrenchchildwhoisgivenhardcideratdinnerislearningculture.,.,ConsciousLearningatthesecond(cognitive)level,UnconsciousLearningatthefirstlevel,CultureLearning,Conclusion:a)Learningculturalconceptions,rules,andbehaviorsusuallygoesonwithoutourbeingawareofit.,b)Theessentialmessagesofaculturegetreinforcedandrepeated.,c)Welearnourculturefromalargevarietyofsources.,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,1.1Welearnourculturethroughproverbs.,2,.,Welearnourculturethroughproverbs.,Theysaythingsthatpeoplethinkimportantinwaysthatpeopleremember.Theyexpresscommonconcerns.Seidensticker,Proverbsarelearnedeasilyandrepeatedwithgreatregularity,theysoonbecomepartofanindividualsbeliefsystem.Allpeoplesharecommonexperience,manyofthesameproverbsappearthroughouttheworld.,Proverbsareacompacttreatiseonthevaluesofculture.,Reason:,.,e.g.1.afewproverbsfromtheUnitedStatesa)Strikewhiletheironishot.-IntheUnitedStates,peoplewhotakequickactionisvalued.b)Actionsspeakerlouderthanwords.-Americansarea“doing”culture,henceactivityand“gettingthingsdone”areimportanttothedominantculture.c)Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.-ThissayingcallsattentiontothestrongbeliefinAmericathatpeopleshouldshowinitiative.,.,2.someproverbsfromplacesotherthantheUnitedStatesa)Aproverbislikeaswifthorse.-TheYorubasofAfricabelievethatpeoplearenotqualifiedtotakepartincommunaldiscussionsunlesstheyarealsotoquotetheproverbsrelevanttoeachsituation.The“swifthorse”proverbsimplyunderscorestheimportanceofproverbstothisculture.b)Onedoesnomakethewindbutisblownbyit.-Thissaying,foundinmanyAsiancultures,suggeststhatpeopleareguidedbyfateratherthanbytheirowndevices.,.,c)Evenifthebridgebemadeofstone,makesureitissafe.-ThisKoreansayingexpressesthewisdomofgoingslowlyandbeingcautiousandreflective.d)Nothingdonewithintelligenceisdonewithoutspeech.-ThisGreeksayingemphasizestheimportanceoftalkasameansofcommunication.e)Wisdomisbetterthanjewels.-ThisJewishsayingexpressestheimportanceoflearningandeducation.,.,f)Azebradoesnotdespiseitsstripes.-FromtheMassaiofAfrica,thissayingexpressesthevalueofacceptingthingsastheyare,ofacceptingoneselfasoneis,andofnotenvyingothers.g)Amanstongueishissword.-Withthissaying,Arabsaretaughttovaluewordsandusetheminapowerfulandforcefulmanner.h)Hewhostirsanothersporridgeoftenburnshisown.-TheSwedish,averyprivatepeople,teachthevalueofprivacywiththeproverb.,.,i)Howevercrowdedthewaybe,thehenwillreachhereggs.-TheAfricanproverbstressestheloveofamotherforherchildren.j)Whenspiderwebsunitetheycantieupalion.-ThisEthiopianproverbteachestheimportanceofcollectivismandgroupsolidarity.k)Wearealllikewellbuckets,onegoesupandtheothercomesdown.-ThisproverbexpressesMexicansbeliefthatlifeisaseriesofopposites-lifeanddeath,illnessandhealth,painandpleasure.Therearethousandsofproverbsfromhundredsofcultures,andeachoffersspecificdefinitionsandinstructionsaboutlife.,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,1.2Welearnourculturefromfolktales,legends,andmyths.,2,.,Welearnourculturefromfolktales,legends,andmyths.,Thestorieseachculturetellstheirpeople,whetherintheformoffolktales,legends,ormyths,areallintendedtotransmittheculturefrompersontopersonandfromgenerationtogeneration.,.,FolkloresFolkloresconstantlyreinforceourfundamentalvalues.,2.Columbusbeingglorifiedbecausehewasdaring.,3.Cinderellasstorybeingwellknownworldwidewithvariedversiongivendifferentemphasisbydifferentcultures,e.g.1.Pinocchiosnosegrowinglargerbecauseofhislies.,.,TalesEveryculturehasthousandsoftales,eachstressingafundamentalvalue.,e.g.1.Americansreverethetough,independent,fast-shootcowboyoftheOldWest.,2.TheEnglishAdmirationofgoodmanners,courtlybehavior,anddignityisreflectedintheCanterburyTales.,3.TheJapaneselearnabouttheimportanceofduty,obligationandloyaltyintheancientstoryofTheTaleoftheForty-SevenRonin,.,MythsMythsareusefultoolsforteachingculturebecausetheycoverawiderangeofculturalconcerns.Perhapstheirmostsignificantcontributionisthattheydealwiththeideasthatmattermosttoaculture-ideasaboutlife,death,relationships,natureandthelike.,.,CharacteristicsofCulture,1.3Welearnourculturethroughart.,2,.,Welearnourculturethroughart.,Atriptoanymuseumintheworldquicklyrevealshowtheartofc