写作教程总结

-Unit 1 the Correct WordFocusDenotation and Connotation1. Denotation refers to the literal and primary meaning of a word-the definition you find in a dictionary.2. Connotation refers to the implied or suggested meaning of a word.We can list some words to compare its different meaning of denotation and connotation.WordDenotationConnotationSentence(connotation)goldA kind of material source Expensive, money wealthGold now is very expensive.moonThe natural body that moves around the earth once 28 days.Beauty lonely, coldness ,purity, tranquilityMany years past she still keep a charity like the moon.iceWater frozen so that it has become solid.Coldness, indifference cruelty, death, etcThe ice in his voice was only to hide the pain.bloodRed liquid flowing through the bodies of human or animalRelationship, death, descent ,race, temperament Blood is thick than water.winterA seasonColdness, tired ,upsetPlease walk out you winter of life , just smile to your life.Attitude: when we write in English, we have to be careful with some emotionally loaded words-i.e. words that can reveal the writers attitude. We can divide the words attitude into three parts: 1commendatorypositive 2neutral 3derogatorypejorativeCommendatoryNeutralPejorativequaintstrangebizarrepersiststubbornpigheadedcomplimentpraiseflatteringSenior citizenOld personfossilBachelor girlSingle girlspinsterCollocation: fixed combination of wordsThere are several types of collocation: 1.V+N(follow the fashion) 2. A+N(a brilliant success) 3.V+AD(think alike) 4.PREP+N(the answer to a question) 5. V+PREP(think of an idea)False FriendsAdvise(v) vs. advice(n) angel （天使）vs. angle（角度）capital（首都，资金）vs. capitol（国会大厦）Complement（补充） vs. compliment （称赞）credible（可信的，确实的） vs. credulous（轻信的，易受骗的） get knowledge(t) vs. learn knowledge(f)GrammarSubject-Verb agreement1when the subject is compoundWork and play are equally important.Ham and eggs is my favorite breakfast.(1)由and或bothand连接的并列结构作主语时，如果意义为复数，谓语动词用复数；如果作主语的并列结构不是指两个或两个以上的人或物，而是表示单数，则动词用单数；and与each等限定词时，随后动词用单数。(2)由neithernor not onlybut also连接的并列结构作主语，随后动词形式常遵循就近原则。(3)主语后用along with, together with引导等词组，动词形式根据主语形式而定。2When the subject expresses quantity(1)有many a等限定词，其后动词形式为单数(2)a pair, heap of 后动词多接单数形式3when the subject is a relative pronoun, a what-clause, or in the there-be structure(1)以nominal clause 作主语，随后动词通常用单数(2)relative clause 中谓语动词单复数形式通常以关系代词先行项的形式而定(3)there be 谓语动词单复数形式取决于所后的Unit2 The Appropriate WordFocusStyle: in English, words can be, roughly, formal , general, colloquial, and slang in terms of style. Formal and generalFormal words are not as common as general words, which form the basis of the vocabulary and are used for everyday communication.formalgeneralfracturebreaklucidclearterminateendcorpulentfatfacilitateMake easyverifyproveconcuragreeNotice: a common belief among students is that formality is a virtue, but the best policy is to use general words in most cases and formal words in specific, formal contexts .Colloquial and slangWell, now, you know, Id like to say, oh, may god, I think.which can be used in colloquial, and contraction and abbreviation also can be used. But in some formal constitution wed better not use it. Notice : the colloquial style takes a less prominent role, therefore, for most writing tasks, it may not be ideal. Too much slang can make a passage loose and unserious; some may even sound odd.Style and audienceThe formal style is characterized by extensive vocabulary, frequent use of formal and abstract words, absence of slang and almost no contraction or clipped words.The informal style is characterized by vocabularies ranging from formal to colloquial but mostly general, and occasional and clipped words.Different style are used to address different audiences and on different occasions.Chinglish: it refers to the unidiomatic use of English by Chinese speakerAvoid literal translationchinglishdiomaticBig filmblockbusterEarly lovePuppy loveConvenient noodlesInstant noodlesFist productKnockout productOne sex goodsDisposable goodsGrasp the connotation请帮我们(宣传)一下这个新产品。Please help us to propagate this new product. Propagate should be replaced by promote他遇事总是先想着自己，真是太个人主义了 He is self-concerned and individualistic。 Individualistic should be replaced by selfishnessGrammarPronouns1Subjective vs. objectiveSubjective: I she you he it who whom theyObjective: me her you his whom whose them its2Singular vs. plural3Point of view is used to describe the perspective in writing.Unit 3 the Better WordFocusConciseness (Brevity is the soul of wit. )Tip: 1 eliminate or expression rewrite that repeat the same point2cut out unnecessary intensifiers3avoid overusing the noun forms of verbs4change phrase into single words5 change unnecessary “that, who and which” clause into phrases.Notice: redundancy is not always easy to spot. the best way is to proofread your writing carefully and try to find words, phrases or even sentence that are not essential.Preciseness：The concreteness of expressionGeneral words convey inexact intangible and often abstract concepts whereas specific words provide precise, sensory or concrete details. For example: it was fine last weekend, so we went to the countryside and had a good time. We saw many things and people there. And we had a wonderful time.Improved: It was a wonderful and relaxed weekend, we drive our private and spacious car to the countryside, there we were a enjoyable and relax time. We saw so many people who wearied plain and simple clothes and there are so much interesting tings like assembly and folk dance. Were welcomed by passionate villager and had delicious dinner with them. That was really a memorable and wonderful time.EffectivenessSentence Base Unit 4FocusThe sentence base, which is like the trunk of a tree, consists of at least one subject and one verb.Subject: to choose a good subject is the first crucial step in sentence writing, tell us who or what is responsible for an action, feelings, and state or process.Position of the subject: The subject is usually, through not always ,put at the beginning of a sentence.The subject of a declarative sentence- a sentence that makes a statement usually precedes the verb .but in one situation , it follows the verb,( In the center of the painting stands a lady in white. )Voice: the voice of a verb depends on the relation between the verb and its subject. when the subject acts, the verb is in the active voice; when the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the passive voice.1Choosing the active voiceThe active voice stresses the activity of the subject and helps to make a sentence direct, concise, and vigorous.2Choosing the passive voiceThough the active voice is more commonly used in writing, the passive voice may be more suitable for the following:1when the agent is followed by a long modifier, we use the passive voice to avoid suspension of the verb2the passive also used to keep the focus of two sentencesGrammarTense1The simple present: a表示现在的状态，b表经常或习惯性动作，c表主语具备的性格和功能 d普遍真理和自然规律e表示将来和过去时间2Sequence of tenses: simple present, simple past, present progressive, past progressive, present perfective, past perfective, present perfective progressive, past perfective progressiveMood: the indicative mood, the imperative mood, the subjunctive moodThe subjunctive mood: In grammar, the subjunctive mood (abbreviated sjv or sbjv) is a verb mood typically used in subordinate clauses to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or action that has not yet occurred. It is sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood, as it often follows a conjunctionUnit 5 Expanded Sentence BaseFocusAttributes: words or phrases used to narrow down or describe nouns are called attributes.What can be used as attribute?A Determiners: refers to words that are used to define the referential meaning of a noun or a nominal phrase.It included articles, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, and cardinal and ordinal numerals.B adjectives are the most common attributes.For example: hairy animals, a red roseC nouns: most of them indicate the feature of the noun modified. For example: Her boy friend is a fashion designer.D-ing forms : to describe the function ,feature ,or to indicate the present state of the noun.We all like her smiling face.E ed formsHe only drinks imported wine.F infinitives: now it must be placed after the noun.Do you have a friend to talk to.G prepositional phrases: it is placed after the noun it modifiers.I cant stand that silly ad for dog food, can you?Relative ClausesWhy use relative clause: to make the nouns either more exact or more vivid; we can direct readers attention to the main clauseMy son liked the toy car very much which I bought for his birthday.The toy car was liked by my son very much which I bought for my son.Writing correct relative clausesRULE1 where the antecedent refers to a thingFor example A+ thatwhich +clauseRULE2 where the antecedent refers to a personFor example A+ thatwho +clauseRULE3 where the antecedent is used as possessive in the clauseFor example A +whose +clauseRULE4 where the antecedent refers to a timeFor example A+ when + clause RULE5 where the antecedent refers to a placeFor example A+ where (inat+ which) + clauseRULE6 where the antecedent refers to a causeFor example A+ why + clauseRULE7 where the antecedent refers to a mannerFor example A+ in which + clauseRULE8 where the antecedent refers to the main clause as a whole Foe example preceding sentence+ which +clauseRule 9 where the relative clause has no relative word If the relative is used as object, it can be omitted.Rule 10 where the relative begins with a preposition For example antecedent+ prep+ which+ clauseRule 11 where the antecedent and the relative clause are separated by a commaFor example: a non-restrictive clause (The boy, who have played truant to watch the football match, will have to copy the text.)GrammarIncomplete SentenceA Phrase fragment: inexperienced writers may write a phrase as if it were a sentence because they borrow the phrase directly from the spoken language.Ill meet you in the library. At four in the afternoon. ( Ill meet you in the library at four in the afternoon.)B fragment without a subject She stood by the window. And looked at the street below. ( She stood by the window and looked at the street below.)C fragment without a auxiliary verb: fragments often contain verb-like particles or infinitives which cause the writer to think a verb has been include.D fragment of dependent clauses: when a dependent clause are fairl long, a writer might mispuctuate it as a sentence.Word OrderDeterminers: 名词前的限定词顺序为前位-中位-后位，同时一个名词中心词前不能同时用两个中位限定词或两个前位限定词。Adjectives形容词修饰名词的顺序为：限定词-数词-描绘词-（大小，长短，形状，新旧，颜色）出处-材料性质类别-名词。Unit 6 Expanded Sentence BaseFocusParticipleGetting to know participle: there are two kinds of participle, one ending with ing, and the other ending with ed which forms to use depends on the relationship between the verb and the noun described.1The trembling old man stood by the broken window.2Frightened by a strange noise downstairs he went down slowly ,holding his gun in his handComplex participle phrase A present participle in different modes and aspectsB Participle with conjunctionTime: we use while when to emphasize that the participle action and the predicate action take place at the same place. We also use words like before ,after to show the sequence of the two actionWhile chasing the cat, the dog hurt its feet.Concession: we use words like though ,although ,even if , etc. to show concession.She doesnt plan to go to the party, even though invited.Condition: we use if when or unless before a participle to indicate that this is just a condition , instead of a fact.When hearted, this material will give off a very bad smell.Getting to know participles functionA creating concise sentenceB producing more detailed sentence1The old man held the receiver in his hand, shocked at what he was told, not uttering a single word.2Shocked at what he was told, not uttering a single word, the old man held the receiver in his hand. (Better)C establishing clearer logicIll have to stay in bed for a couple of days, hurt in a accident.Hurt in a accident, Ill have to stay in bed for a couple of days.AbsolutesGetting to know absolutesUsing absolute with purposeA adding descriptive details to make sentence much more vivid.The manager sat quietly in his office, his eye closed.The manager sat quietly in his office, a cigarette burning in his hand.(better)B indicating cause-effect relationshipsHe glared at his boss, smile disappeared.The girl was enjoying her favorite song, laughed loudly.GrammarComma-split sentence: use a coma to connect two separate ideas, or two independent sentenceWe can use some conjunction to combine the sentence.Fused sentence We should know the base structure of sentence, like SVC, SV, SVO, SVOC.Unit 7 Joining Sentence TogetherFOCUSCoordination: is a common syntactic pattern formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but , or.Coordinate structuresA basic coordinate formulaCoordination= item A+ andbut+ item B (a red and yellow curtain)B coordination a different grammatical levels1 hard but rewarding (word level )2 a five-thousand-Yuan salary and a two-month paid holiday (phrase level)3 who is old enough to provide knowledgeable lessons about life and who is young enough to treat students as friends. (clause level)4Leaders work with mind, and laborers work with hand. (sentence level)C coordination with different types of coordinators1. Single coordinators: and, but, or2. Paired coordinators: bothand, eitheror, neithernor3. Serial coordinationCoordination in series= item A+ item B+ item C,+Coordinator+ last itemD using conjunctive adverbs (sentence connectors)1indicate contrast: however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, otherwise, in contrast2 indicate cause and effect: therefore, thus, hence, consequently, as a result, for this reason3inndicate a similar idea follows: besides, moreover, furthermore, in addition, similarly4indicate emphasis and illustration: indeed, in fact, in particular, for example, for instance5 indicate time: then, meanwhile, at the same time, afterward, laterCoordination at the sentence levelcoordinatorrelationshipandThe two items are similarbutThe two items are differentorTwo items are alternativenorNeither of the two items take placesoCause the effectyetWhat the sentence less close than with but Function of coordinate sentences: to clarity the relationship between clauses and assigns equal weight to the ideasAdvanced usages of coordinate sentenceA repetition or absence of coordinatorsB semicolons: a it quittance the pace of the sentence ; b slowly the sentence down, so the reader will pun date over the ideas. C interrupted coordination: the phrase inserted adds more information to the original sentence. B Making the sentence pasterns more varied.Joining Sentence Together Unit 8 FocusSubordination The clause that can be used independently is called independent clause ; the clause that cannot be used alone is called dependent clause ,and the word used to connect them and indicated relationship is called subordinator.Subordination vs. coordinationSimilarity: they both combine two clause into one sentenceDifference: The two clauses in coordinate sentence can be used indecently, because their meanings are complete; while in subordinate only one sentence is complete meanings and can be used indigently.Coordination: Tony is very gifted in music ,but he chose to major in accounting.Subordination: Although Tony is very gifted in music, he chose to major in accounting.Types of subordinationA nominal clause: a nominal clause is a dependent clause functioning as a noun.Why your father comes here is a mystery to me.B relative clauses: I like the dog thatwhich is chasing a catC adverbial clausesFunctions of subordination A more informationB emphasis: to sum up, subordination can add more information to a sentence, and more importantly, it can give special emphasis to part of the sentence.Effective use of subordinationA position of the subordinate clauseB simplified subordinationUnit 9 Sentence VarietyWays to achieve sentence variety1By varying the length A short sentence: emphatic, suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas.B long sentence: capable of expressing complex ideas with precision ; suitable for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.2 By varying the pattern: by sentence patterns, we mean sentence of different functions and structuresA Avoid strings of brief and simple sentenceB Avoid too many compound sentence.Sentence function: declarative .interrogative imperative exclamatoryGrammatical structure; simple, compound, complex, compound-complex3By varying the emphasis The first strategy for emphasisNatural emphasis position in English sentence 1 The end of a sentence is the most emphasis position; the beginning the second ; the middle the last.2 When we shift the order, we create a certain emphatic effect , other elements such as attributes and adverbials are usually placed close to what they modify.The