FOCUSGROUPS-FlindersUniversityinAdelaide,South焦点小组-佛林德斯大学在阿德莱德南.ppt

1、Using Focus Groups in research: more than just a fashion statement?,A/Prof Paul Ward Discipline of Public Health .au,Plan of Session,Introductions expectations, needs/wants What are focus groups and why/when might you use them? Epistemological and methodological issues Critique

2、- advantages and disadvantages Research Ethics Practicalities Thinking about analysis,Introductions,What are your knowledges and experiences of focus groups? Why are you here? (and why now?) What do you want out of this session?,What are focus groups and why/when might we use them?,Remember,As with

3、all research methods, let your research question determine your methodology and methods (NOT the other way around!) Just because they may be seen to be trendy (Tony Blair seemed to lead the UK on the basis of them) dont be fooled into just using them uncritically,What are Focus Groups?,Group discuss

4、ions/ group interviews Facilitated by researcher (often helped by another person) Getting people to think about, discuss/debate an issue (or set of issues) related to your research question More than just a bunch of individuals responding to your questions Allows for interaction (new data, conflicti

5、ng data) Allows participants to interpret each others responses Not just a series of separate conversations with you! The sum should be more than its individual parts!,Why/when might you use them?,MAIN REASON when you want to generate discussion/debate about your research question/ area of research

6、You do not think that individual responses will yield the kinds of data you want When you think that individuals may not be able to provide adequate responses on your research question Havent thought about the issues The issue requires discussions Might be normal/ everyday/ taken for granted issues

7、When people may not feel safe talking in individual interviews Young people? Groups that may work on basis of collective discourse,Why/when might you use them?,Other reasons are the same as all qualitative methods Lack of research in area Wanting to develop theory Wanting to develop a quantitative s

8、tage of study Etc, etc REMEMBER this is not a group counselling session there is always a possibility of a research relationship to stray into a therapeutic relationship but even more so in focus groups,Situating focus groups within an epistemological and methodological framework,Rationale for talki

9、ng about epistemology and methodology here,Highlight the philosophical bases of ALL research Explore the point or rationale of focus groups Situate them within epistemological and methodological framework There is a tendency for cookbook methods Add 1 RCT, wait for 18 months, then sprinkle with some

10、 focus groups. Add 4 focus groups and 15 interviews, wait for 1 year. However this divorces methods from their philosophical bases Therefore quick re-cap on epistemology, methodology and method,Epistemology,Concern the questions of what is (or what should be) acceptable forms of knowledge Central to

11、 this is whether the social world (i.e. that involving people and structures) can or should be studied according to the same principles and procedures as the natural sciences Positivism objectivity, generalisation, the development of general laws/ truths and testing of theories (deductivism) Interpr

12、etivism - social reality can only be understood through social constructions such as language, consciousness and shared meanings. Does not predefine variables, but explores human sense-making in naturalistic settings.,In essence.,Positivism is about explanation (need for statistical generalisation e

13、tc) Interpretivism is about understanding (need for depth and context etc),Methodology,Method and methodology are often used as though they were synonyms - they arent Methodology is not just a posh word for method. Methodology is the study of methods and refers to the strategy or approach to researc

14、h. Very much related to the epistemological position,Method,Method is a specific technique (or set of techniques) for data collection Informed by methodology (which is shaped by epistemology) Within quantitative methodology questionnaire survey, experiment etc Within qualitative methodology focus gr

15、oups, individual interviews, observation, documentary analysis,Links,Epistemology,Methodology,Method,Technique,Positivism,Quantitative,Experiment,RCT,Interpretivism,Qualitative,Interview,Focus group,Types of research questions,Describing or answering questions about a particular, localised occurrenc

16、e or context Understanding the perspectives of particular groups towards events, beliefs or practices (dentists, GPs, nurses, patients, homeless etc) Exploring complex research area where little is known (theory generation) . Answering the WHY question. Why do young girls continue to smoke? Why do y

17、oung men engage in many high-risk activities? Why are some health care services inequitable provided? providing CONTEXT and UNDERSTANDING,Some benefits of qualitative research,The potential to illuminate everyday life to better understand the familiar and strange Can provide specific, concrete detai

18、ls to guide an understanding of a particular setting Can provide interpretation of local meanings that activities and practices have for a group engaged in them To illuminate differences across settings how different GPs interpret guidelines/ diagnose flu/ prescribe antibiotics etc,Characteristics o

19、f qualitative research (1),Natural context occur in natural settings Places where people interact (GP/dental surgery, classroom, street corner etc) Study of inanimate objects (how health care/policy is developed or organised) Non-manipulative study situations/objects intact Researcher observes, inte

20、rviews, records, describes settings as they are Researcher as instrument researchers engages in a situation and attempts to make sense of it Data collected through human observation Data interpretation through human perceptions Subjectivity of researcher insights, experiences, perceptions of researc

21、her are important part of the study,Characteristics of qualitative research (2),Interpretive character researcher attempts to explain why and how something is happening - focus is on meaning rather than specific behaviours Focus on process, rather than outcome how and why things happen Depth (rather

22、 than breadth) of understanding hence the smaller number of cases Inductive analysis research begins with open-ended questions rather than attempting to test a priori hypotheses. Context sensitivity findings are placed in social, historical and spatial context limiting generalisations,Characteristic

23、s of qualitative research (3),Empathic neutrality complete objectivity is not possible but pure subjectivity undermines credibility Attempt to understand (not prove) something Goal is not to advocate or to advance personal agendas Personal experience is included as part of relevant data, although no

24、n-judgemental stance towards whatever content may emerge from data Reflexivity attempting to include the role of the researcher in the whole process (question construction, design, analysis etc) Flexibility of design research is open to adaptation as understanding deepens or situations change Focus

25、on emic perspectives write from the perspectives of the participants (emic) rather from the researchers own perspective (etic). Perspectives of the participants in the study What are they thinking, why are they thinking it, what are their assumptions, motives, goals values etc.,Some limitations,Subj

26、ectivity is inherent In ALL research (not just qualitative) Reflexivity is championed in qualitative Labour/ time intensive Underestimation of the vast amount of time it takes to undertake the data collection, arrange the interviews/ focus groups, transcribe the data, undertake data analysis etc Mis

27、understanding of novice researchers Many researchers think it is a soft option, but have little understanding of the complexities involved Quality and trustworthiness of studies are then compromised Limited generalisability moderatum generalisability However, this is not the point of qualitative stu

28、dies, therefore seems an inappropriate standard by which to judge,Critique of focus groups,Some Advantages,Has many of advantages of many qualitative methods, but in addition. Group dynamics more than the sum of its parts Generating new data that wouldnt have been gained through individual interview

29、s Participants bouncing off each other In Literature - Time efficient Not a good methodological justification Not wholly convincing either (set up time, arranging lots of people for same time, developing appropriate themes, transcribing, analysis etc etc),Some Limitations,Maybe less detailed or in-d

30、epth than some interviews Potential for group speak Some people going with consensus rather than offering an alternative viewpoint Potential for power dynamics Different levels of involvement In Literature, issue of Public vs Private views May only get public views in focus group Holds onto positivi

31、stic notion of a truth which is private IF there is a private view, hidden from public view, can researchers ever get to it?,Research ethics,Research ethics,ALL research needs to consider and respond to the following ethical principles: Research Merit and Integrity Respect Beneficence Justice Howeve

32、r, when thinking about using focus groups, we have some additional ethical issues to consider,Research ethics,Data control if 1 person wants their data to be removed, how does one do this within the context of a discussion - and make it amenable to analysis? Confidentiality and anonymity a variety o

33、f things may be talked about within the group, how do you make sure none of that goes outside the group? Power there may be distinct power dynamics how do you make sure each person has an equitable voice?,Practicalities of focus groups,Practicalities,Setting it up Deciding on composition and size Ru

34、nning focus group Transcribing Potential pitfalls,Setting it up,Adequate physical facilities Big enough room friendly atmosphere Child-care facilities? Disabled access? Car parking or public transport routes? Relevant recording equipment Good quality audio recorder to pick up a variety of voices at

35、different distances from microphones Make sure you have pre-tested it and know how it works Refreshments Incentives? Okay consistent and in-line with what youre asking them to do,Deciding on composition and size,Heterogenous vs homogenous? Heterogeneous diversity of perspectives on central research

36、question Homogeneous May be good for sensitive issues Kitzingers work on HIV shared experiences good for bouncing off each other and a sense of safety May be good for marginalised groups for whom individuals may feel powerless within a heterogeneous group Whats a good sized group? Ideal size is 6 to

37、 10 participants Not enough discussion vs alienation of some people or too rowdy Over-recruit! invariably get last-minute cancellations,Running focus group,Role of facilitator (YOU) - success depends heavily on skills of the facilitator keeping discussion going keeping discussion within the research

38、 framework making sure people have a say fairness and respect trying to involve quiet participants trying to make ethnographic notes on the non-verbals (HARD so maybe take an observer along too),Transcribing,Takes MUCH longer than transcribing individual interviews Help the transcriber ask people to

39、 go around room and either say their name or pick a pseudonym Level of voice is really important ask people to speak up Also civility rules ask people (wherever possible) not to talk over one another if this happens its not transcribe-able so ask to repeat maybe?,Some Potential Pitfalls,Dominance by

40、 one person Going off topic Writing up sometimes its hard to see that there was more than 1 person in the room at the time! analysis and writing is on the basis of group discourse, not individual discourse,Introduction to Qualitative Analysis,. Not a workshop on analysis. But you need to think about

41、 it BEFORE collecting data.,Transcript provided,Example of part of focus groups transcript THIS is what youll have to analyse Have a quick look through, then well talk about methods of analysis.,Background to qualitative analysis,Inductive theory development Looking for patterns in the data emergent

42、 themes No pre-defined variables to focus on variables/themes/issues are defined as a result of the analysis Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously No single agreed approach to analysis depends on theoretical orientation, type of data, research question, research setting etc Involves read

43、ing, re-reading, and re-reading piles and piles of notes, transcripts, initial analyses until it makes sense,Useful quote to keep in mind.,Plummer (quoted in Chapple & Rogers (1998, p.559) suggests that: “ analysis is the truly creative part of the work it entails brooding and reflecting upon mounds

44、 of data for long periods of time until it makes sense and feels right, and key ideas and themes flow from it. It is also the hardest part to describe”.,Chapple A 15: 556-561.,Stages involved in ALL analytical approaches,Organising the data Developing categories, themes, and patterns from the data T

45、esting emergent theories/hypotheses against the data Searching for alternative explanations in the data Writing the report,Some issues to bear in mind,The process is not linear Iterative stages build upon each other, and inform each other Cyclical interpretation may lead to re-classification Process

46、 does not have the same clear structure Sometimes unclear which stage you are at May go from description to interpretation Unpredictability The process of analysis When is analysis finished? How long will it take?,(1) Organising the data,What are data? Transcripts of focus groups Field notes Memos R

47、eflections or comments by researcher (and recorder) Develop a data management system All data are organised, dated and sequenced Manual or computer? - for large datasets, computers make life easier WARNING although they are called “Qualitative analysis software packages” they are glorified filing ca

48、binets YOU do the analysis, the software package helps you to organise the data, to sort the data, and to find the data at a later stage.,(2) Describing the data,Provide a picture of the setting, people and events Setting where and when did research take place People describe who participated Events

49、 what happened throughout the research process Provides a context, within which to situate the analysis of verbal/textual data Called a thick or rich description Also consider issue of reflexivity Why that setting and those people? Describe inter-personal relationships? Describe what it felt like in

50、 each encounter,(3) Searching and coding the data,SEARCHING Involves reading and re-reading the data to get a sense of it Reading ALL data (memos, transcripts, reflections) What seem to be the important issues emerging from the data? As you read make notes of the sections, themes, issues that initia

51、lly seem important Coloured pens Notes in margins Underlining Make notes of particular themes that seem to re-occur Keep searching until you feel that you have documented the main issues emerging And have highlighted where these occur in the data,(3) Searching and coding the data,CODING Breaking dat

52、a into smaller units to make sense of the data Naming and labelling of phenomena through close examination of the data. Strauss & Corbin (2004, p.303) state that “During open coding the data are broken down into discrete parts, closely examined, compared for similarities and differences, and questio

53、ns are asked about the phenomena as reflected in the data. Through this process, ones own and others assumptions about phenomena are questioned or explored, leading to new discoveries”. The transcripts are read, and re-read, and each discrete incident, idea, event, concept etc are labelled (coded).

54、Similar incidents or ideas are given the same label (code), thereby allowing comparison both within and between transcripts,(4) Categorising data,Process of coding may have developed hundreds of codes Although these will be discrete, there will be similarities between some codes Also, need to have a

55、 smaller number of categories to make the analysis manageable, and the findings readable Therefore collapse codes into meaningful categories Category is a group or classification of individual codes/ labels/ themes One method of coding and categorising data is Constant Comparison,Constant comparison

56、,Comparing newly identified topics/themes to determine if they represent NEW categories or should be placed in existing categories “is this theme similar to or different from existing categories?” If similar these are added to the existing categories which are changed accordingly If not similar new categories are created Continues until data saturation No new categories emerging All categories have been exhausted How do we know when weve reached saturation? Data saturation When no new themes/concepts emerge from the data When weve looked for negative cases (data that contradi