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徐州工程学院毕业设计(论文)附录附录1 英文翻译Microprocessors in EngineersThe development of the microprocessor during the 1970s brought about a revolution in engineering design. The industrial revolution at the turn of the nineteenth century heralded the development of the machines which could replace physical drudgery by mechanical means. Apart from a few exceptions, however, these machines required manual supervision because the problem of controlling this mechanical power was not at all straightforward.Many types of automatic control systems have appeared during the twentieth century, based on electronic, mechanical, hydraulic and fluidic principles. In each case the design techniques have been similar because each component of the system usually contributes a single well defined function to the system behavior.The microprocessor represents a fundamentally different approach to the design of a system. Its physical form is quite simple and reliable, consisting of a few general-purpose elements which can be programmed to make the system function as required. It is the controlling program which must be designed to give the system the required behavior, and which will contain “components” and “subassemblies” just like any other kind of engineering. The program, or software, is just of the engineered system as the physical hardware, but it is much less susceptible to failure, provided that it is designed properly.The idea of programmed systems is not new; electronic computers have been in existence for many decades. However, it has taken the development of the large scale integrated circuit-the silicon chip-to produce computers which are cheap, rugged, and reliable enough to be incorporated into engineering designs as components. The techniques of software design are well known to computer scientists and it is not surprising that the principles of good engineering design and “software engineering” are essentially those of good engineering design. We shall see that engineering design using software allows systems to be designed more easily than using more conventional techniques.It is the combination of developments in electronic device technology with those in computer technology which has enabled the microprocessor to be produced, and these technologies have “converged” to produce the micro-electronic industry which we see today.More recent developments in integrated circuit technology have led to the introduction of microprocessor small computers fabricated using relatively few integrated circuit components. In fact an entire microprocessor can be made as a single chip. At the heart of any computer is a Central Processing Unit or CPU, and the corresponding heart of the microprocessor is MPU(Micro-Processor Unit), which is simply a CPU implemented on a silicon chip. Its processing power is greater than that of its giant predecessors and yet it is cheap and robust enough to be treated as simply another engineering component.The microprocessor was conceived as a device which could be programmed in a very flexible fashion to give almost any desired behavior by means of a list of electronic instructions. Using a microprocessor involves programming skill in producing these lists of instructions as well as more conventional electronic and mechanical design techniques. As its name suggests, the microprocessor is organized in much the same way as a conventional computer; indeed, it may be regarded as the “natural” outcome of the “evolution” of the computer from its earliest days.Systems Using MicroprocessorsElectronic systems are used for handling information in the most general sense; this information may be telephone conversation, instrument reading or a companys accounts, but in each case the same main types of operation are involved: the processing, storage and transmission of information. In conventional electronic design these operations are combined at the function level: for example a counter, whether electronic or mechanical, stores the current count and increments it by one as required. A system such as an electronic clock which employs counters has its storage and processing capabilities spread throughout the system because each counter is able to store and process numbers.Present day microprocessor based systems depart from this conventional approach by separating the three functions of processing, storage, and transmission into different sections of the system. This partitioning into three main functions was devised by Von Neumann during the 1940s, and was not conceived especially for microcomputers. Almost every computer ever made has been designed with this structure, and despite the enormous range in their physical forms, they have all been of essentially the same basic design.In a microprocessor based system the processing will be performed in the microprocessor itself. The storage will be by means of memory circuits and the communication of information into and out of the system will be by means of special input/output (I/O) circuits. It would be impossible to identify a particular piece of hardware which performed the counting in a microprocessor based clock because the time would be stored in the memory and incremented at regular intervals by the microprocessor. However, the software which defined the systems behavior would contain sections that performed as counters. The apparently rather abstract approach to the architecture of the microprocessor and its associated circuits allows it to be very flexible in use, since the system is defined almost entirely in software. The design process is largely one of software engineering, and the similar problems of construction and maintenance which occur in conventional engineering are encountered when producing software.How these three sections within a microcomputer are connected in terms of the communication of information within the machine. The system is controlled by the microprocessor which supervises the transfer of information between itself and the memory and input/output sections. The external connections relate to the rest (that is, the non-computer part) of the engineering system.Although only one storage section has been shown in the diagram, in practice two distinct types of memory RAM and ROM are used. In each case, the word memory is rather inappropriate since a computer memory is more like a filing cabinet in concept ; information is stored in a set of numbered boxes and it is referenced by the serial number of the box in question.Microcomputers use RAM (Random Access Memory) into which data can be written and from which data can be read again when needed. This data can be read back from the memory in any sequence desired, and not necessarily the same order in which it was written, hence the expression random access memory. Another type of ROM (Read Only Memory) is used to hold fixed patterns of information which cannot be affected by the microprocessor; these patterns are not lost when power is removed and are normally used to hold the program which defines the behavior of a microprocessor based system. ROMs can be read like RAMS, but unlike RAMS they cannot be used to store variable information. Some ROMs have their data patterns put in during manufacture, while others are programmable by the user by means of special equipment and are called programmable ROMs. The widely used programmable ROMs are erasable by means of special ultraviolet lamps and are referred to as EPROMS, short for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories. Other new types of device can be erased electrically without the need for ultraviolet light, which are called Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories, EEPROMS.The microprocessor processes data under the control of the program, controlling the flow of information to and from memory and input/output devices. Some input/output devices are general-purpose types while others are designed for controlling special hardware such as disc drives or controlling information transmission to other computers. Most types of I/O devices are programmable to some extent, allowing different modes of operation, while some actually contain special-purpose microprocessors to permit quite complex operations to be carried out without directly involving the main microprocessor.The microprocessor, memory and input/output circuit may all be contained on the same integrated circuit provided that the application does not require too much program or data storage. This is usually the case in low-cost application such as the controllers used in microwave ovens and automatic washing machines. The use of single package allows considerable cost savings to be made when articles are manufactured in large quantities. As technology develops, more and more powerful processors and larger and larger amounts of memory are being incorporated into single chip microcomputers with resulting saving in assembly costs in the final products. For the foreseeable future, however, it will continue to be necessary to interconnect a number of integrated circuits to make a microcomputer whenever larger amounts of storage or input/output are required.Another major engineering application of microcomputers is in process control. Here the presence of the microcomputer is usually more apparent to the user because provision is normally made for programming the microcomputer for the particular application. In process control applications the benefits of fitting the entire system on to a single chip are usually outweighed by the high design cost involved, because this sort of equipment is produced in smaller quantities. Moreover, process controllers are usually more complicated so that it is more difficult to make them as single integrated circuits. Two approaches are possible; the controller can be implemented as a general-purpose microcomputer rather like a more robust version of a hobby computer, or as a packaged system, designed for replacing controllers based on older technologies such as electromagnetic relays. In the former case the system would probably be programmed in conventional programming languages such as the ones to be introduced later, while in the other case a special-purpose language might be used, for example one which allowed the function of the controller to be described in terms of relay interconnections. In either case programs can be stored in RAM, which allows them to be altered to suit changes in application, but this makes the overall system vulnerable to loss of power unless batteries are used to ensure continuity of supply. Alternatively programs can be stored in ROM, in which case they virtually become part of the electronic hardware and are often referred to as firmware.More sophisticated process controllers require minicomputers for their implementation, although the use of large scale integrated circuits blurs the distinction between mini- and microcomputers. Products and process controllers of various kinds represent the majority of present-day microcomputer applications, the exact figures depending on ones interpretation of the word product. Virtually all engineering and scientific uses of microcomputers can be assigned to one or other of these categories. Microcomputer InterfaceA microcomputer interface converts information between two forms. Outside the microcomputer the information handled by an electronic system exists as a physical signal, but within the program, it is represented numerically. The function of any interface can be broken down into a number of operations which modify the data in some way, so that the process of conversion between the external and internal forms is carried out in a number of steps.This can be illustrated by means of an example such as that of Figure 1, which shows an interface between a microcomputer and a transducer producing a continuously variable analog signal. Transducers often produce very small output requiring amplification, or they may generate signals in a form that needs to be converted again before being handled by the rest of the system. For example, many transducers have variable resistance which must be converted to a voltage by a special circuit. This process of converting the transducer output into a voltage signal which can be connected to the rest of the system is called signal conditioning. In the example of Figure .1, the signal conditioning section translates the range of voltage or current signals from the transducer to one which can be converted to digital form by an analog-to-digital converter.An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to convert a continuously variable signal to a corresponding digital form which can take any one of a fixed number of possible binary values. If the output of the transducer does not vary continuously, no ADC is necessary. In this case the signal conditioning section must convert the incoming signal to a form which can be connected directly to the next part of the interface, the input/output section of the microcomputer itself.The I/O section converts digital on/off voltage signals to a form which can be presented to the processor via the system buses. Here the state of each input line, whether it is “on” or “off”, is indicated by a corresponding “1” or “0”. In the analog inputs which have been converted to digital form, the patterns of ones and zeros in the internal representation will form binary numbers corresponding to the quantity being converted.The raw numbers from the interface are limited by the design of the interface circuitry and they often require converter and scaling to produce values suitable for use in the main program. For example, the interface might be used to convert temperatures in the range-20 to +50 degrees, but the numbers produced by an 8-bit converter will lie in the range 0 to 255. Obviously it is easier from the programmers point of view to deal directly with temperature rather than to work out the equivalent of any given temperature in terms of the numbers produced by the ADC. Every time the interface is used to read a transducer, the same operations must be carried out to convert the input number into a more convenient form. Additionally, the operation of some interfaces requires control signals to be passed between the microcomputer and components of the interface. For these reasons it is normal to use a subroutine to look after the detailed operation of the interface and carry out any scaling and/or converter which might be needed.Output interfaces take a similar form (Fig.2), the obvious difference being that here the flow of information is in the opposite direction; it is passed from the program to the outside world. In this case the program may call an output subroutine which supervises the operation of the interface and performs the scaling numbers which may be needed for a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). This subroutine passes information in turn to an output device which produces a corresponding electrical signal, which could be converted into analog form using a DAC. Finally the signal is conditioned (usually amplified) to a form suitable for operating an actuator. Digital Interface CircuitsThe signals used within microcomputer circuits are almost always too small to be connected directly to the outside world and some kind of interface must be used to translate them to a more appropriate form. The design of section of interface circuits is one of the most important tasks facing the engineer wishing to apply microcomputers. We have seen that in microcomputers information is represented as discrete patterns of bits; this digital form is most useful when the microcomputer is to be connected to equipment which can only be switched on or off, where each bit might represent the state of a switch or actuator.Care must be taken when connecting logic circuits to ensure that their logic levels and current ratings are compatible. The output voltages produced by a logic circuit are normally specified in terms of worst case values when sourcing or sinking the maximum rated currents. Thus VOH is the guaranteed minimum high voltage when sourcing the maximum rated high output current IOH, while VOL is the guaranteed minimum low output voltage when sinking the maximum rated low output current IOL. There are corresponding specifications for logic inputs which specify the minimum input voltage which will be recognized as a logic high state VIH, and the maximum input voltage which will be regarded as a logic low state VIL.For input interface, perhaps the main problem facing the designer is that of electrical noise. Small noise signals may cause the system to malfunction, while larger amounts of noise can permanently damage it. The designer must be aware of these dangers from the outset. There are many methods to protect interface circuits and microcomputer from various hinds of noise. Following are some examples:1. Input and output electrical isolation between the microcomputer system and external devices using an opt-isolator or a transformer.2. Removing high frequency noise pulses by a low pass filter and Schmitt-trigger.3. Protecting against excessive input voltages using a pair of diodes to power supply reversibly biased in normal direction,For output interface, parameters VOH, VOL, IOH and IOL of a logic device are usually much to low to allow loads to he connected directly, and in practice an external circuit must be connected to amplify the current and voltage to drive a load. Although several types of semiconductor devices are now available for controlling DC and AC powers up to many kilowatts, there are two basic ways in which a switch can be connected to a load to control it; series connection and shunt connection as shown in Figure 3.With series connection, the switch allows current to flow through the load when closed, while with shunt connection dosing the switch allows current to bypass the load. Both connections are useful in low power circuits, but only the series connection can used in high-power circuits because of the power wasted in the series resistor R.中文翻译工程中的单片机20世纪70年代的单片机发展引起了工程设计的一场革命。在19世纪之初的工业革命宣布了用机械工具代替繁重的体力劳动的时，机器得到了大力发展。但有少数例外，这些机器需要人的操作监管，这是因为控制这种机械动力的问题并不都是简明的。在20世纪，出现了许多种基于电子、机械、液压和流体原理的自动控制系统。由于系统中的每一元件通常对系统的运转状态只起单一确定的功能，各种类型系统的设计技术是相似的。单片机代表了一种根本不同的系统设计方法 。其物理形式是非常简单可靠的，包括一些通用元件，通过编程取得所需的系统功能。控制程序的设计必须给予系统所需的功能作用，它应像其他工程类型一样包含“元件”和“组件”。程序或软件，如同物理硬件形成的工程系统，但如果设计正确（得法），是不易出问题的。可编程系统的设想并非新鲜，电子计算机已使用了几十年。但是，它的应用得益于大规模集成电路-硅片的发展，从而使生产的计算机变得足够的便宜、耐用且可靠，能够以部件的形式综合到工程设计中。软件设计技术对计算机科学家来说已是十分清楚的，而且并不奇怪好的工程设计和“软件工程”是好的工程设计的基本条件，我们将会看到使用软件的工程设计使系统设计比使用更常规的方法更为方便。正是由于电子器件技术的发展和计算机技术发展的综合产生了单片机。这些技术“会集起来” 形成了我们今天看到的微电子工业。集成电路技术的更新发展促使了单片机的出现，也就是用相对少量的集成电路元件构成了小计算机。事实上完整的计算机可用一个芯片做出。在任意计算机中，其核心是中央处理单元或CPU，而微型计算机的核心是微处理器或MPU（Micro-Processor Unit），它是用一个硅片制成的CPU。它的处理能力比早先的巨大芯片还要强，并且对仅仅作为另一种工程部件来说，已足够强大。微型计算机被设想为能以非常灵活的方式进行编程的装置，通过一组电子指令清单就能给出几乎任何所希望的功效。使用计算机会涉及在生成指令清单时的编程技巧以及常用的电子和机械设计技术。正如其名字所指示的，微型计算机以常用计算机十分相同的方法组成；事实上，它可看作是从最早的计算机“进化”的“自然”结果。广义地说，电子系统是用于处理信息的，这种信息可以是电话交谈、仪器读数或企业信息，但是各种情况下都涉及相同的主要操作：信息处理、存储和传送。在常规的电子设计中，这些操作都是以功能平台方式组合起来的，例如计数器，无论是电子还是机械的，都要存储当前值，并按要求将该值增1。诸如采用计数器的电子钟之类的任一系统要使其存储和处理能力遍布整个系统，因为每个计数器都能存储和处理一些数字。当前微处理器化系统与上述的常规方法不同，它将处理、存储和传输三个功能分离形成不同的系统单元。这种形成三个主要单元的分离方法是冯诺依曼在20世纪40年代所设想出来的，并且是针对微计算机的设想。从此几乎所有制成的计算机都是用这种结构设计的，尽管包含宽广的物理形式，从根本上来说它们均是具有相同的基本设计。在微处理器化系统中，处理是由微处理器本身完成的。存储是利用存储器电路，而进入和出自系统的信息传输则是利用特定的输入/输出(I/0)电路。要在一个微处理器化时钟中找出执行计数功能的一个特殊硬件是不可能的，因为时间存储在存储器中，而在固定的时间间隔下由微处理器控制增值。但是，规定系统运转过程的软件包含实现计数器功能的单元。由于系统几乎完全由软件所定义，所以对微处理器结构和其辅助电路这种看起来非常抽象的处理方法使其在应用时非常灵活。这种设计过程主要是软件工程，而且在生产软件时，就会遇到产生于常规工程中相似的构造和维护问题。微型计算机中这三个单元是如何按照机器中的信息通信方式而联起来的。该系统由微处理器控制，它管理自己与存储器和输入/输出单元的信息传输。外部的连接与工程系统的其余部分(即非计算机部分)有关。尽管图中显示的只有一个存储单元，实际中有RAM和ROM两种不同的存储器被使用。由于概念上的计算机存储器更像一个公文柜，上述的“存储器”一词是非常不恰当的；信息存放在一系列已标号的“箱子”中，而且可按问题由“箱子”的序列号进行信息的参考定位。微计算机常使用RAM(随机存取存储器)，在RAM中数据可被写入，并且在需要时可被再次读出。这种数据能以任一所希望的次序从存储器中读出，不必按写入时的相同次序，所以有“随机”存取存储器。另一类型ROM(只读存储器)用来保持不受微处理器影响的固定的信息标本；这些标本在电源切断后不会丢失，并通常用来保存规定微处理器化系统运转过程的程序。ROM可像RAM一样被读取，但与RAM不一样的是不能用来存储可变的信息。有些ROM在制造时将其数据标本放入，而另外的则可通过特殊的设备由用户编程，所以称为可编程ROM。被广泛使用的可编程ROM可利用特殊紫外线灯擦除，并被称为EPROM，即可擦除可编程只读存储器的缩写。另有新类型的器件不必用紫外线灯而用电擦除，所以称为电可擦除可编程只读存储器EEPROM。微处理器在程序控制下处理数据，并控制流向和来自存储器和输入/输出装置的信息流。有些输人/输出装置是通用型的，而另外一些则是设计来控制如磁盘驱动器的特殊硬件，或控制传给其他计算机的信息传输。大多数类型的I/0装置在某种程度下可编程，允许不同形式的操作，而有些则包含特殊用途微处理器的IO装置不用主微处理器的直接干预，就可实施非常复杂的操作。 假如应用中不需要太多的程序和数据存储量，微处理器、存储器和输入输出可全被包含在同一集成电路中。这通常是低成本应用情况，例如用于微波炉和自动洗衣机的控制器。当商品被大量地生产时，这种单一芯片的使用就可节省相当大的成本。当技术进一步发展，更强的处理器和更大数量的存储器被包含形成单片微型计算机，结果使最终产品的装配成本得以节省。但是在可预见的将来，当需要大量的存储器或输入/输出时，还是有必要继续将许多集成电路相互联结起来，形成微计算机。 微计算机的另一主要工程应用是在过程控制中。这时，由于装置是按特定的应用情况由微机编程实现的，对用户来说微计算机的存在通常就更加明显。在过程控制应用中，由于这种设备以较少的数量生产，将整个系统安装在单个芯片上所获取的
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