Refutation(驳论文写作)

1、L/O/G/ORefutationFrom The ENP Group2014.5.27 Task schedulingSpeakersData CollectorsPPT makersDefination Steps Ways of argumentationSome examples and points4123ContentsThe model essay 5Arefutationistheactofprovingsomethingwrongbyargumentorevidence.Thepartofanargumentinwhichaspeakerorwritercountersopp

2、osingpointsofview.What is Refutation?What is Refutation? ArefutationpaperisreferredtoasanargumentpaperYourrefutationYoumustfullyunderstandtheirpointofviewItsimportanttoresearchyoursideoftheissueandyourcriticswellDefination Steps Ways of argumentationSome examples and points4123ContentsThe model essa

3、y 5Steps of RefutationStep 1 Step 2Thenputtheirargumentsdownonebyonebydisprovingthemorshowingwhytheyshouldnotbebelieved.First,verybrieflybringupthemainargumentsthatyouropponentshavemadeormightmakeintheirownfavorSteps of RefutationIntroductoryparagraphBodyparagraphConclusionparagraph WriteanIntroduct

4、ion WhatCanbeAttacked TellaStrongThesisStatementAttackopposingargumentsHowtoendHow to write a Refutation1. Providenecessarybackgroundinformationp Whythereisacontroversyoveritp Howdifferentopinionscameaboutp Whoisonwhatsidep Whattheclaimsofeachsidearep WhyanyonecaresYoushouldalsodefinewordsthatyourre

5、adersdontknow,orwordsthatusuallygeneral,butyouuseinaspecificway,orwordsthatareeasilymisunderstoodinmeaning.How to Write an Introduction2.Becharming Youcanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingawell-phrasedcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity(自负)andshowconcern

6、foryourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.How to Write an Introduction3.Astrongthesisstatementexpressesonemainidea. CompaniesneedtoexploitthemarketingpotentialoftheInternet,andWebpagescanprovidebothadvertisingandcustomersupport.(weak) BecausetheInternetisfilledwithtremendou

7、smarketingpotential,companiesshouldexploitthispotentialbyusingWebpagesthatofferbothadvertisingandcustomersupport.(strong)How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement4.Astrongthesisstatementisspecific. Worldhungerhasmanycausesandeffects.(weak) HungerpersistsinGlandeliniabecausejobsarescarceandfarminginthein

8、fertilesoilisrarelyprofitable.(strong)How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement1.Unclear: Contradictsitself Fullofholes Leavestoomanyquestionsunanswered Usestoomanyobscureorundefinedwords ToogeneralWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 2.Incredible: Strainsthereaderssuspensionofdisbelief Offersnoreaso

9、nstobelievetheopponentsstatements Givesnosolidsourcesforunusualclaims Reliesonquestionableoroutdatedorbiasedsources Reliesonpersonalstoriesinsteadofobjectiveevidence ReliesonevidencethatismissingorcannotbereproducedWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 3.Impossible: Isnotanchoredinarealworld Isapr

10、oposalthatisnotpossibletoaccomplish Strainsthereadersimagination Sillyorpreposterous Ignoresthelawofnature Turnstheworldonitshead RequiresamiracleoranactofGodtocometrue Isamillion-to-onelongshotWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 4.illogical: Doesnotstanduptothetestoflogic Isnotanintelligentanal

11、ysis Jumpstoconclusions Inducesgrosslogicalfallacies Isignorant,uneducated,childish,infantile Lacksanyevidenceorproofforstatements Closed-minded ConvenientlyignoresthefactsWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 5.Unfitting: Isnotrightormoralinacivilizedsociety Evil-minded,unworthyofdecentpeople Cul

12、turalunacceptable,disagreeswithyourownfaithormorals Inhumane Self-centeredWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 6.Unprofitable: Makesnosensefinanciallyormoney-wise Wasteful Costsmorethanitsaves Resultsinpovertyandbankruptcy（破产）orstarvationWhat Opposing Arguments Can be Attacked 1.Examples:examples

13、notonlymakeageneralizationclearer,theyarealsolikelytomakeitmoreconvincing.2.Facts:afactisastatementacceptedastrue.Itcanbefromnewspapers,almanmacs（年鉴）,encyclopedias（百科全书）andresearchstudies.3.Authoritativeorexpertopinions:tociteexpertsonthesubjectwhoagreewithyourpointsofview.How to attack opposing arg

14、uments4.Statisticalfindings:datashowinghowmuch,howmany,orhowoftencanbeconvincing.5.Personalexperiencesorobservations:Sometimestheycandeliveranargumentativemessagemoreforcefullythananyotherkindofevidence.Personalexperienceusuallyreinforcesbutdoesnotreplaceotherkindsofevidences.How to attack opposing

15、arguments Restartyourthesisindifferentways Lookintothefuture Makefunofyouropponents SummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongHow to endDefination Steps Ways of argumentationSome examples and points4123ContentsThe model essay 5Way of argumentationRefutation through LogicWayofargumentationRefutation t

16、hrough Evidence Refutation through Minimization Anargumentstandsonlegsofevidence.Ifthereisnosupportorclearjustificationsforanargument,itcannotbesoundorvalid. Awritercanrefuteanopposingargumentbysuccessfullycounteringitthroughevidence,whetheritsevidencethatconclusivelydisprovesitbyitsfindingsorbecaus

17、eitsmorerecent/credibleevidence.Refutation through Evidence Onepopulardebaterightnowcentersontheexistenceofglobalwarming,aswesawinthecartoon.Ifaproponentfortheexistenceofglobalwarmingcitedanarticleabouttsunamisfrom2005,his/heropponentcouldcomebackwithamorerecentarticle(say,from2010)demonstratingscie

18、ntificevidencethatdisprovedthecorrelationbetweentsunamisandglobalwarming.Thiswouldbeaninstanceofrefutationthroughevidence.Refutation through Evidence(Example) Refutationthroughlogicisperhapsthestrongestandmostpersuasiveformbecauseitessentiallydeconstructstheopponentsargumentandprovesittobealogicalfa

19、llacy. Thiscanbedifficulttodosuccessfullybecausemostskilledwritersandrhetoricianswillhavealreadyexaminedthevalidityoftheirargumentsbeforepresentingthem.However,itispossible,soletscheckoutanexampleofthis.Refutation through Logic Onecommonlogicalfallacyistoassumecausationwhenthereisonlycorrelation.So,

20、ifIweretoarguethatenforcingallstudentstowearuniformscausesasuppressionofindividualexpression,myopponentcouldrespondthatwhiletheremaybeacorrelationbetweenuniformsandsuppressedindividuality,itisnotagiven(andthereforenotadirectcause/effectrelationship).Inotherwords,theremaybeothervariablestotakeintoacc

21、ountbeforeIcanassumethatuniformscausethiseffect.Refutation through Logic (Example) Refutationthroughminimizationoccurswhenawritershowsthatoneofthebestopposingargumentsisnotascentraltotheissueastheoppositionthought; thewritermightshowtheargumentassomethingthatisperipheralandnotaseminenttothetopicashi

22、s/herargument.Refutation through Minimization AnexampleofthiswouldbeifIwerearguingthatallfreshmanstudentsacrosscampusuniversitiesnation-wideshouldparticipateinahealthprogramtodecreasethechancesofgainingtheextraweightoftheFreshman15.IfmyoppositionarguedthattheFreshman15doesnotoccurasfrequentlynowbeca

23、usemorestudentsarenon-traditionalstudentsandlivingathome,ImightthenarguethatthisisinconsequentialconsideringourobesityproblemintheUnitedStates.Surelyanyfreshmanwouldbenefitfromahealthprogram,whetherheorshewaslivingoncampusornot.Refutation through Minimization (Example)Defination Steps Ways of argume

24、ntationSome examples and points4123ContentsThe model essay 5Payattentiontothepoints调查类错误考虑不全面错误充分条件类错误因果关系类错误范围变化类错误时间外推类错误论据含糊错误类比Where we should especially pay attention to非此即彼类错误AllkindsoflogicalerrorSomeexamples攻击“概念错误”攻击个体推整体攻击整体推个体Theargumentresetsontheassumptionthat(个体案例)typifynationwide(整体情况

25、).Ifthisisnotthecase,thenitisentirelypossiblethat(在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况).Thus,lackingmoremarketinginformationaboutnationwide,itisdifficulttoassessthemeritofthememosrecommendation.AthresholdprobleminvolvesthedefinitionofA.Thearguerfailstodefinethiscriticalterm.IfAisdefinedasB,thenC,isirrelevanttoIn

26、short,withoutacleardefinitionofA,itisimpossibletoassessthestrengthoftheargument.Oneproblemwiththeargumentisthatitassumesthatthenationwide(characteristicsofagroupapplytoeverymemberofthatgroup)statisticsaboutappliesequallyto个体成员,.Yetthismightnotbethecase,foravarietyofpossiblereasons.Perhaps;orperhaps.

27、Withoutrulingoutsuchpossibilities,theauthorcannotjustifiablyconcludethat批评驳斥句型批评驳斥句型DirectlyRefuteCriticalAnalysis本节句型用于对某一观点进行分析，指出其错误性和荒谬性，并予以批评。本节句型首先引出文章要驳斥的观点，或作者不赞成的意见，然后对这些观点进行直接驳斥。Althougheveryonebelievesthatindividualshavetherighttorisktheirownlives.Idoubtwhethertheargumentbearsmuchanalysis

28、.Fewofus,forexample,coulddefendtherighttosmokeinrestaurants,supermarkets,hospitalsandotherpublicplaceswhenthehealthofnonsmokersisendangered.Besides,sincemostofthecostoftheinjuryofanindividualisbornebyallsociety,whyshouldthosewhowearseatbeltshavetopayhigherinsurancebillsbecauseotherswont?虽然每个人认为他有权冒着

29、自己生命的危险去干某事，但我不认为这个观点经得起推敲。例如，当不吸烟者的健康受到危害时，我们很难为自己在饭馆、超市、医院以及其他公共场所吸烟的权利辩护。而且由于一个人出了事故，其费用的大多数是由整个社会来负担的，为什么驾车带上保险带的人因为别人不带而要付出高昂的保险费呢？批评驳斥句批评驳斥句型（直接驳斥）型（直接驳斥）句型示例句型示例A l t h o u g h everyone believes that . IdoubtwonderWhether the argument bearsmuch analysis.close examination.Althoughthecommonbeli

30、efisthathightechnologywillplayacriticalroleinsolvingenergyandfoodshortagesandthatanswerstoenvironmentaldifficultieswillcomefromfurtheradvancesinthesametechnologiesthatmayhavehelpedcausetheproblems,moreandmoreevidenceshowsthatpurelytechnologicalsolutionaloneisnotthewholeanswer.Anincreasingnumberofsci

31、entistsargueopenlyfornewdirectionsinresearchandbegintopayattentiontosuchfieldsassociology,psychologyandevenphilosophy.虽然大多数人认为高科技在解决能源和粮食短缺方面起着决定性的作用，而且解决环境问题的答案在于进一步发展这个曾造成了这些问题的技术，但是越来越多的证据表明仅从技术方面考虑，并不能解决问题。越来越多的科学家要求从新的方向来研究并开始把注意力放在社会学，心理学，甚至哲学等领域。批评驳斥句批评驳斥句型（直接驳斥）型（直接驳斥）句型示例句型示例Although thepop

32、ularnationwidecommonly- acceptedbeliefideaassumptionis that., acurrentrecentnewstudysurveyinvestigation poll indicatesshowsrevealsdemonstratesthat.Toassumethatthesmall,buthappynuclearfamilypatternisemergingiswideofthemark.Foritscarcelyreflectstherealitiesofmodernfamilylife.Climbingdivorcerate,theris

33、eofthesingle-parenthousehold,theimpactofremarriages,theincreaseinone-paycheckfamiliesandthestressesofurbanlifearetransformingthefamilyandchallengingourtraditionalviewoffamilylife.说幸福的三口之家的核心家庭结构正在形成并不正确，因为这个观点并没有反映出现代家庭生活的真实情况。离婚率的上升，单亲家庭的增多，再婚的影响，夫妻一方下岗人数的增加以及城市生活的压力等等，这一切正在改变家庭的概念，向我们对家庭生活的传统看法挑战。

34、批评驳斥句批评驳斥句型（批评分析）型（批评分析）句型示例句型示例 To claimassumesuggestsaythat. isto miss the point.wide of the mark.far from being proved.a gross exaggeration.the most obvious kind of nonsense.Now,ifyouaretopunishaman,youmustinjurehim.Ifyouaretoreformhim,youmustimprovehim.Andmenarenotimprovedbyinjuries.Toproposetop

35、unishandreformpeoplebythesameoperationisexactlyasifyouweretostandamansufferingfrompneumoniainthesnowallnight,attemptingtocombinepunitiveandcurativetreatment.如果你的意图是惩罚一个人，你就一定要伤害他。如果你的意图是改造他，你就一定要使他变好。而人们是不会因为受种种伤害而变好的。建议用同一做法既惩罚人又改造人，恰恰就像让患了肺炎的人一整夜站在雪地上，试图采用惩罚与医治相结合的疗法。批评驳斥句批评驳斥句型（批评分析）型（批评分析）句型示例句型

36、示例To suggestproposesaythat . is exactly as if you .imply to say that .close to saying that .Ifoneallowsthetobaccoindustrytospendstaggeringsumsonadvertisinginordertoenlistitsfinancialsupport,itisnogoodbeingdisturbedbythestatisticsthatcountlessvaluablelivesarelosteachyearandbytheenormusamountsspentone

37、ffortstocurepeoplefromvariousdiseasescausedbysmoking.如果允许烟草公司把大笔的钱花在广告上，以得到它们的资助，那么对每年死去的无数宝贵的生命，对花在医治抽烟所造成的各种疾病上的巨大开支就用不着感到震惊了。批评驳斥句批评驳斥句型（批评分析）型（批评分析）句型示句型示例例 If oneadvocatesallows., it is nogoodpoint sensebeingdisturbedsurprisedby theideafactthat.Defination Steps Ways of argumentationSome example

38、s and points4123ContentsThe model essay 5ThemodelessayInanyacademicareaorprofessionalfield,itisjustasimportanttorecognizethelimitsofourknowledgeandunderstandingasitistoacquirenewfactsandinformation.“Personally,Iholdthatknowledgeknowsnobounds,therefore,onrealizingthisawkwardness,theonlythingmanshould

39、doistoabsorbasmuchnewknowledgeashecanforthesakeofnotlaggingbehindthepacingstepsofourworld.Doesrecognizingthelimitsofourknowledgeandunderstandingserveusequallywellasacquiringnewfactsandinformation,asthespeakerasserts?注意这一句经典的反问式开头了，这是最引人注目的。Whileoureverydayexperiencemightlendcredencetothisassertion,f

40、urtherreflectionrevealsitsfundamentalinconsistencywithourWesternviewofhowweacquireknowledge.Nevertheless,acarefulandthoughtfuldefinitionofknowledgecanservetoreconcilethetwo.ThemodelessayOntheonehand,thespeakersassertionaccordswiththeeverydayexperienceofworkingprofessionals.Forexample,thesortof“book”

41、knowledgethatmedical,law,andbusinessstudentsacquire,nomatterhowextensive,isoflittleuseunlessthesestudentsalsolearntoaccepttheuncertaintiesandrisksinherentinprofessionalpracticeandinthebusinessworld.Anysuccessfuldoctor,lawyer,orentrepreneurwouldundoubtedlyagreethatnewprecedentsandchallengesintheirfie

42、ldscompelthemtoacknowledgethelimitationsoftheirknowledge,andthatlearningtoaccommodatetheselimitationsisjustasimportantintheirprofessionalsuccessasknowledgeitself.在驳论的第一段，作者就举例子说明知识的有限性并不一定意味着各行各业的人就必须汲取其他方面的知识，恰恰相反，对于医生、律师或企业家来说意识到了自我知识的有限，并且寻求方法去适应调和这一有限性反而是必要的。ThemodelessayMoreover,theadditionalkn

43、owledgewegainbycollectingmoreinformationoftendiminishes-sometimestothepointwheremarginalgainsturntomarginallosses.Consider,forinstance,thecollectionoffinancial-investmentinformation.Noamountofknowledgecaneliminatetheuncertaintyandriskinherentinfinancialinvesting.Also,informationoverloadcanresultinco

44、nfusion,whichinturncandiminishonesabilitytoassimilateinformationandapplyitusefully.Thus,byrecognizingthelimitsoftheirknowledge,andbyaccountingforthoselimitswhenmakingdecisions,investmentadvisorscanmoreeffectivelyservetheirclients.作者进一步通过金融投资业信息的赘余的危害性来驳斥原文的观点。ThemodelessayOntheotherhand,thespeakersassertionseemsself-contradictory,forhowcanweknowthelimitsofourknowledgeuntilwevethoroughlytestedthoselimitsthroughexhaustiveempiricalobservation-thatis,byacquiringfactsandinformation.Forexample,itwouldbetemptingtoconcedethatwecannev