二语习得期末复习资料

1、Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1. SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. Second language: an officially or societally d

2、ominant language (not L1) needed for education, employment or other basic purposes3. Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5. Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer hav

3、e of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6. Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8. Simultaneous multilingualism: ability to use one or more la

4、nguages that were auqired during early childhood.9. Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.1. What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1) What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2) How does the L2 leaner acqui

5、re this knowledge?(3) Why are some learners more successful than others?2. Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1. Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2. Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3. Mo

6、nolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4. Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars ”5. Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6. Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states or interim grammars

7、 of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7. Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation( 合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8. Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also called interference.9. Fossilization: a stable state in SLA

8、where learners cease their interlanguage development before they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: the argument that because language input to children is impoverished( 穷尽的 ) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for

9、 L1 acquisition.11. Innate capacity: a natural ability, usually referring to children s natural ability to learn or acquire language.1. What is the nature of language learning? Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2) The role of natural abilitya) Humans are born with a natural ability or innate c

10、apacity to learn another language.b) As children mature, so do their language abilities.c) Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there are stages everyone goes through.d) “Cut off point " - ifthe process does not happen at a young age, you'll never

11、 learn the language.(关键期假说) (Critical Period Hypothesis)(3) The role of social experiencea) Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them and around them, no matter what is their language.b) As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and

12、 sequence ofdevelopment doesn't change.c) The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2. What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17 表格)(1) Similarities between L1 and L2a) Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about lan

13、guage structures and principles Intermediate State - Basic language development Final State - Outcome of learningb) Necessary conditions: Input(2) Differences between L1 and L2 ( P17 表格)3. What is the logical problem of language acquisition"?(1) Children knswledge of language goes beyond what c

14、ould be learned from the input they receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2) Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3) Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4. Framework for SLA(P24&P26)Perspectives, foci, and framewo

15、rksperspectivefociframeworkLinguisticInternalTransformational-Generative Grammar Principles and Parameters Model Minimalist ProgramexternalFunctionalismpsychologyLanguahe and the brainNeurolinguisticsLearning processesInformation Processing Processability ConnectionismIndividual differenceHumanistic

16、 modelsSocialMicrosocialVariation Theory Accomodation Theory Sociocultural TheoryMacrosocialEthnography of CommunicationAcculturation Theory Social Psychology5. Give at least three reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language Children begin to learn their language at the

17、 same age, and in much the same way regardless ofwhat the language is.(2) Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and create novel(新颖)utterance.(3) There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6. Linguists have taken an internal

18、 and external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers ' internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions oflanguage which are realized in

19、 learners ' production at different stages ofdevelopment.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1. Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use.2. Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers t

20、o the intermediate states or interim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3. Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development oflanguage learners.4. Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky which claims that L1 acquisit

21、ions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.5. Language faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a component of the human mind ”that accounts for children's innate knowledge of language.

22、6. Principles: properties(固有属性 )ofall languages ofthe world; part of Chomsky's universal grammar.7. Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account for grammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky s theory of universal grammar.8. Initial

23、state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners ' heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9. Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state o

24、f adult grammar.10. Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific feature occurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more normal“ or expected" along some dimensions.11. Grammat

25、icalization( 语法化):a developmental process in which a grammatical function(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context ofdiscourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as

26、 the suffix -ed).The nature of language1. What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language? Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon( 词汇学), phonology(语音学),morphology(构词法),syntax(句法).Languages are systemic, symbolic and social.Contr

27、astive analysis2. What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.3. What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1) If L2 acquisition i

28、s disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonable to focus on the differences between native and target language.(2) Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences between your native language and the target language, you are able to overcome the lingui

29、stic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the target language.4. What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1) The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization of errors.(2) Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interferen

30、ce.(3) The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.Error analysis1. What is error analysis ?EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than on idealized linguistic structures attribu

31、ted to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).2. What is the difference between CA and EA?Contrastive analysisError analysisPedagogical orientationScientific orientationFocus on input, practice, inductive learningFocus on linguistic and cognitive processesErrors of transferMultiple types of errors3

32、. What are the shortcomings of EA?(1) Ambiguity in classification.(不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2) Lack of positive data.(正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3) Potential for avoidance.(学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)4、 Interlanguage1. What are the characteristics of interlangu

33、age?(1) Systematic.(2) Dynamic.(3) Variable.(可变性)although systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.(4) Reduced system, both in form and function.(学习者经常会简单化 )2. There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including different cognitive proces

34、ses involved:(1) Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2) Transfer training.(3) Strategies of second language learning.(避免等)(4) Strategies of second language learning.(为方便不要复数等 )(5) Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3. The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively a

35、s whenever a learner first attempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development permanently " stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even more controversial.5、 Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1. Which five hypotheses(假定)does the m

36、odel consist of?(课本 P45! !) Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2) Monitor hypothesis(3) Natural order hypothesis(4) Input hypothesis(5) Affective filter hypothesis2. What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquis

37、ition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3. 图示Learntknowledge(Monitoring)Comporehensible inputLanguageAcquisitionDevice (LAD)Acquired,knowledge-. OutputAffectivefilt

38、er4. What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1) What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2) How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3) Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5. What is the role of gr

39、ammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction.6、 Universal grammar1. Differences of linguistic competence

40、 and performance( 见 Chapter1 名词解释)2. What is UG?(名词解释)3. UG and L1 acquisition What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2) Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4. UG and SLA, there are three important questions What is the initial state of SAL?Interferenc

41、e(看参数相同不相同 )；no agreement on access to UG(2) What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程 Language faculty; positive/negative evidence( 起作用)； constructionism; fossilization(3) What is the final state in SLA?(P52 五个达不到的原因)7、 Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1. What are

42、the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping; Information organization.2. What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)？Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices

43、 that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单 到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的(红绿灯) 。3. What acquire by language learners is meaning potential. There are seven functions of language. (P53)4. Systemic linguists advance four theoretical claims about language:a) That language

44、use is functional;b) That its function is to make meanings;c) That these meanings are influenced by the social and context in which they are exchanged.d) That the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing.5. All of the functional approaches discussed h

45、ere basically agree on the following:a) What is being acquired in SLA is a system for conveying meaning,b) How language is acquired importantly involves creative learner involvement in communication, andc) Understanding of SLA processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumstances of use.Ch

46、apter 4 the psychology of second language acquisition1. Lateralization: different specification of two halves of the brain. For example, the left hemisphere becomes specialized for most language activity, many believe during a criticalperiod for language development.2. Critical period hypothesis( 临界

47、期假设): the claim that children have the only a limitednumber of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffer brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged area, but b

48、eyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.3. Information processing (IP): a cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like l

49、earning of other domains) proceeds from control to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.4. Controlled processing: r an initial stage of the learning process that demands learner s attention.5. Automatic processing: after an initial stage of control processing, au

50、tomatic processing is a stage in learning that requires less mental “space” and attention effort on the learner s part.6. Reconstructing: the reorganization of knowledge that take place in the central processing stage of information processing.7. Input: whatever sample of L2 leaner expose to.8. Outp

51、ut: in SLA, the language that learners produce in speech/sign or in writing.9. U-shaped development: a sequence of acquisition for elements of both L1 and L2 where learner use an initially correct form such as plural feet, then an incorrect foots. Finally, learners return to feet when they begin to

52、acquire exceptions to the plural inflection rule.10. Connectionism: a cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimulus and response.11. Aptitude:

53、an individual set of characteristics which correlate with success in language learning.12. Motivation: a need and desire to learn.13. Cognitive style: an individual s preferred way of processing: i.e. of perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing and recalling information.14. Learning strategies: the b

54、ehavior and techniques that individuals adopt in the efforts to learn L2.1. In psychological respective, what are the three foci? What is stressed in each?First, it focus on language and brain, addressing what is being acquired in a physical sense; second, it focuses on the learning process (IP and

55、connectionism), addressing how acquisition takes place. Finally, it focuses on the differences on learners, addressing the question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others.2. It appears that L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, and the right hemisphere might

56、 be more involved in L2 than L1. Age/less plasticity; how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? (coordinate, compound and subordinate)3. What are the three stages of IP? What must learners do to make input available for processing?They are input, central processing and output. (Cen

57、tral processing is the heart of the model,where learning occurs, from controlled to automatic processing and where reconstructing takes place.）| Learners must notice or pay attention to input to make it available for processing; this kind of input is called intake .| Swain contends that output is ne

58、cessary for successful L2 learning because it helps develop automaticity through practice and because it helps learners notice in their own knowledge. （ 区别于 monitor model 中的只要有enoughcomprehensive input 就可以了）4. What are the theories regarding order of acquisition?They are multidimensional model （P76） and processability theory.5. What is competition model?It is a functional approach to SLA which assumes that all linguistic performance involves“ mapping ” betwe