信息结构研究中的几个基本概念

1、1Basic concepts in the studies of information structure: definiteness信息结构研究中的几个基本概念: 有定/无定Professor Ping Chen 陈 平School of Languages and Comparative Cultural StudiesThe University of Queensland2信息结构 指称形式 (referential form) 话题-陈述结构 (topic-comment structure) 焦点结构 (focus structure)3Referentiality 有指/无指

2、Identifiability and Definiteness 定指/ 不定指New vs. Old Information 新信息/ 旧信息4Identifiability and Definiteness 定指/ 不定指(1) a. George finally bought a house. b. George finally bought the house. 5Definite/indefinite 的两种意义与观察有关问题的两个角度 定指成分(形式)的语法意义 唯一性 uniqueness (Russell) 总体性 inclusiveness (Hawkins, et al)

3、可辨识可辨识 identifiability pragmatic concept hearer-oriented 定指成份(意义) 的语法表现definiteness/indefiniteness: grammatical categoryformal distinction marking an NP as identifiable ornonidentifiable6定指成份(意义) 的语法表现definiteness/indefiniteness: grammatical categoryformal distinction marking an NP as identifiable o

4、rnonidentifiable定冠词/ 不定冠词it is via the articles that definiteness is quintessentially realized, and it is in analyses of the articles that the descriptive problems are most clearly manifested. Moreover, it is largely on the basis of the evidence of articles in article-languages that definiteness has

5、 been proposed at all as a category in other languages. Chesterman (1991: 4)71 有定与无定概念的认知基础有定与无定概念的认知基础 1.1 Direct physical or linguistic co-presence 情境或语篇直接同 现(2) Do you know who he/that man/the man is? (3) There is a dog and a cat in my backyard. The dog loves to chase the cat. 81.2 共有背景知识 Shared

6、background knowledge (4) 狗 呢 ？ Where is the dog?(5) 大为昨天买了辆旧车 ， 喇叭不响 。 David bought an old car yesterday. The horn didnt work. (6) 大为昨天买了辆旧车, 但卖主后来声称大为没把钱给他。 David bought a used car yesterday, but the seller later claimed that he didnt get the money from David. frame, script, scenario, schema, file,

7、 domain 9搭桥式前后参照指称搭桥式前后参照指称 bridging cross-reference (7) a. We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm. b. We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm. (8) a. Mary put the babys clothes on. The clothes was made of pink wool. b. Mary dressed the baby. The clothes were made of pink woo

8、l. 101.3 自含式定指自含式定指 (9) Do you know the man that she went to dinner with last night? 11有指程度有指程度 Degrees of identifiability (10) a. A friend of yours bought a Toyota.b. A friend of Steves bought a Toyota.c. A friend of my neighbors bought a Toyota. d. A friend of a guy I know bought a Toyota.e. ?A fr

9、iend of a guys bought a Toyota.12(11) The boy scribbled on the living-room wall. (12) He scribbled on the north living-room wall. (13) He scribbled on a living room wall.13好奇心原则 curiosity principle: “A reference is counted as identifiable if it identifies an object close enough to satisfy the curios

10、ity of the hearer. The identification need not to be one to satisfy a philosopher or a Sherlock Holmes, who may of course be led to demand “Which wall?” In special circumstances even an ordinary speaker might desire more precise identification. But in everyday speech such partial identification is q

11、uite common.” Du Bois (1980:233)14(14) the mayor of a small village in Wales (15) Im going to stay with my brother for a few days. (16) I met the daughter of a king. 152. Linguistic encodings of identifiability 定指成份 有定冠词/ 不定冠词的语言 定冠词 definite article the 指代词 demonstratives this/these, that/those 物主代

12、词/ 形容词 possessives like my, our, his, and so on 全称量词 universal quantifiers like all, every, random any, etc. 162.1.1 定冠词定冠词 Definite article(17) 情景 situational Get a knife for me from the table. (18) 语篇回指 anaphoric I saw a man pass by with a dog. The dog was very small and skinny, but the man was ve

13、ry large. (19) 共有知识 shared specific knowledge Be quiet. Do not wake up the baby (who is sleeping in the next room) 17(20) 共有知识 shared general knowledge The sun is brighter than the moon. (21) 搭桥式 frame-based association They bought a used car. The tires were all worn out. (22) 自含式定指 self-containing

14、association Do you know the man who lived in this room last year? He broke the window glass with the handle of a bike. 182.1.2 指代词指代词 DemonstrativesMainly for deictic uses Himmelmann (1996) (23) 情景定指 situational Could you please give me a hand with this big box? (24) 语境指示 discourse deictic He did no

15、t answer our phone call as promised. This is not good. (25) 语境指代 anaphoric There is a zoo a couple of miles down the road. You wont see any animals in that zoo. (26) 试探性辨认 recognitional It was filmed in California, those dusky kind of hills that they have out here by Stockton and all. 19指示词所指物体必须 vi

16、sible： (27) a. Beware of the dog. b. Beware of that dog. 指示词不能用于 shared knowledge: (28) Be quiet. *Dont wake up that baby (who is sleeping in the next room). (29) *That sun was covered by dark clouds. (30) They bought a used car. *These/those tires are all worn out. (31) *He broke the window glass w

17、ith this/that handle of a bike.202.1.3 指代词的语法化指代词的语法化 Grammaticalization of demonstratives into definite articles Greenberg (1978:61) (32) Stage 0 transitional Stage 1 situational/ deictic anaphoric shared knowledge association Anaphoric: unexpected, contrastive or emphatic指示词语法化的过程， 就是deictic 用法弱化以

18、至消亡的过程212.1.4 物主代词物主代词/ 形容词形容词 Possessives determiner-genitive (DG) language 英语 my book/sheep *my one book/sheep 一定是identifiableadjectival-genitive (AG) language 意大利 语 il mio libro the my book “my book” a un mio libro a my book “a book of mine”. 可以是 nonidentifiable 223. 无指限定成分 Indefinite markers 数词“

19、一”语义虚化三个过程 (Givn 1981) (33) quantification referentiality/ genericity/connotation denotation 计量 有指/外延 通指/内涵23(34) quantification It needs an hour and a quarter. (35) referentiality/denotation He bought a book. (36) genericity/connotation He is a teacher.24数词 “一”语法化为无定标记经过的五个阶段 (Heine 1997)(37) a. nu

20、meral 数词 I need an hour and a half. b. presentative use 存现用法 A man came up the front stairway.c. nonidentifiable specific reference 无定 有指用法 He bought a house last year.d. nonidentifiable nonspecific reference 无定 无指 He wants to buy a house in this area; any house will do. e. nonreferential use 无指 He

21、is a good chef.25伴随特点： 语义虚化 semantic bleaching 语音弱化 phonological reduction 词法自主性弱化 reduction of morphological autonomy 26英语表现英语表现nonidentifiability 的其他语法手段：的其他语法手段：(38) John has gone out to buy milk. (39) I have already put spoons on the table. (40) Pass me those three books. (41) Ive only read a fe

22、w of the many books shes written. 27 3.2 Languages without definite articles 没有定冠词的语言 Czech, Hindi Indonesian 28汉语中的有定无定汉语中的有定无定 (42) 词汇手段A 人称代词B 专有名词C 这/那 + (量词) + NPD 光杆名词E 数词 + (量词) + NPF “一”+ (量词) + NPG 量词 + NP29汉语表现有定的主要语法手段：Lexical: demonstratives, possessives and universal quantifiers1.指示词： 这

23、 /那 这些 /那些 (43) situational 请把这/那张椅子般到那间房间去 (44) discourse deictic 他想回去？ 这你可不能答应。 30(45) anaphoric (contrastive) 一个小孩子。 路中的时候呢， 碰到了一个女孩子， 这个时候， 这个小孩子又看了那个女孩子， 看了一眼 (46) 在通向城里的一条大路旁，长着一课大树。这棵树的 树干上有一个很大的洞。一天，一个打鱼的人进城 卖鱼。这位渔夫急忙跑到那棵有大树洞的树下 躲雨，。一天，那位往树洞里放鱼的渔夫又经 过这里。 31 (47) recognitional 他就给那。 小孩子， 给那个还

24、他帽子的小孩子三个bale这这/那那 所受限制比所受限制比 this/that 少少 ：(48) anaphoric (non-contrastive) 有一个猎人。养着一只狗。这只狗很懂事。 (49) shared general knowledge 这天气真怪，十二月了，可一点不冷 (50) frame-based association 他买了辆旧车，那轮胎都磨平了。 32(51) self-containing association with accompanying restrictive relative clause 上个月来看你的那个人，我今天又见到他了 33 Table1:

25、distributionof这and那 asdeterminerfornounswitharelativeclause 这 那 使用次数 比例 使用次数 比例 NP + restrictive 3 8% 33 92% relative clause NP + nonrestrictive 4 50% 4 50%relative clauseanaphoric 对比用法时, 这/那 保留了 deictic 用法anaphoric 非对比用法时， 那比这常用34定冠词的典型用法： Shared specific or general knowledge Frame-based associatio

26、n(52) 安静点儿 ， 别把那孩子吵醒了那 in (53) is infelicitous if the baby is not visible and the addressee has no previous knowledge that there is a baby in the houseThe use of 这/那 in (49) and (50) is not very common. Not compulsory when definiteness is marked for a referent in discourse35 4.1.2 Possessives 物主代词物主

27、代词/ 形容词形容词 (53) 这是我的一个朋友告诉我的 。 (54) 我的铅笔怎么找不到了 ？Interpretation of identifiability via Gricean conversationalimplicature36全称量词全称量词 Universal quantifiers 所有 ， 一切 ， 每, 各 (55) 一切因素都得考虑进去 (56) 每个学生都有自己的房间37任指成分任指成分 free-choice quantifiers 什么 谁 哪 (57) 每个学生都得学两门外语 (58) 哪个学生都得学两门外语38汉语无定指示成分汉语无定指示成分: “一一” +

28、 量词量词 (59) a. 数词 这件事不难办，我只要一个钟头就够了。 b. 存现用法: 一架飞机从我们头上飞了过去 c. 无定 有指用法: 他去年买了(一) 套房子。 d. 无定 无指 他想买(一) 套房子，什么房子都行。 e. 无定 无指: 他是(一) 个买卖人39(60) 老李想买(一)套房子，老张也想买一套。 Lao Li wants to buy a house, and Lao Zhang wants to buy one too. *Lao Li wants to buy a house, and Lao Zhang wants to buy a too 40省省“一一”留留“个

29、个” 省省“个个”留留 “一一”(61) 他们父子俩看上去像(一)个法国人 (62) 一位/个法国人走了过来。 (63) 我昨天碰见(一)位/个法国人 (64) 他看上去像个/*？位法国人 (65) 他们父子俩看上去像个/*？位法国人。 41其他无定成分其他无定成分 什么 谁 (66) 他没有说什么要紧的事儿 (67) 窗玻璃被谁给砸了 42 mid-scalar quantifiers (few, several, many et al) 英语和其他许多语言 - 无定成分 汉语 一些 ： 无定成分 几，数词： 不定形成分 （无定，有定，不明） 43词法手段词法手段 (68) 种种因素都得考虑

30、 进去444.3 不定形成分不定形成分 Indeterminate expressions D 光杆名词 E 数词/“几 .” + 名词可以作 identifiable 或 nonidentifiable 理解， 往往取决于句中位置 45(69) 客人来了 来客人了 46(70 ) bare noun: situational 小心， 别把孩子吵醒了(71) cardinality expression: situational 小心 ， 别把两个孩子吵醒了(72) bare noun and cardinality expressions: anaphoric 他养了一只猫和几条狗，猫又肥又

31、大，几条狗却 瘦得皮包骨。(73) bare noun: shared specific knowledge 刚刚接到通知，老板下午来检查工作(74) cardinality expression: shared specific knowledge 把五扇窗子都关上(75) bare noun: shared general knowledge 月亮升上来了47(76) cardinality expression: shared general knowledge 在那儿，四个季节都有各自的特点(77) bare noun and cardinality expression: frame

32、-based association 他买了辆旧车，(四只)轮胎都磨平了。(78) bare noun and cardinality expression: self-containing association 你认识昨天来的(三个)人吗？(79) bare noun and cardinality expression: nonidentifiable specific 我家里请了(几位)客人 48(80) bare noun: nonidenfiable nonspecific 我们得找人帮忙，什么人都行 (81) cardinality expression: nonidentifiable nonspecific 我们得找三个人帮忙，什么人都行 (82) bare noun and cardinality expression: generic/connotation 老李和老张看上去像(两个)法国人49句中位置 (98) “A referent is interpreted as the topic of a proposition if in a given