chGainsandLossesfromTradeintheSpecificFactorsModel国际贸易BobertCFeenstra学习教案

1、会计学1chGains and Losses from Trade in the SpecificFactors Model国际贸易国际贸易BobertCFeenstraEvo Morales and his supporters.The new constitution in 2009 gives indigenous peoples control over natural resources in their territories. In addition to oil and gas, those resources include lithium, a key ingredient

2、 to make batteries for electric cars, which is found in abundance in Bolivia.A key lesson from this chapter is that in most cases, opening a country to trade generates winners and losers.IntroductionIn December 2005, Evo Morales became the first Aymara Indian elected to president in Bolivias 180-yea

3、r history.第1页/共46页Opening a country to trade generates winners and losers. The specific-Factors model helps explain who gains and who loses.It is called the specific-factors model because land is specific to the agriculture sector and capital is specific to the manufacturing sector; labor is used in

4、 both sectors.From the Ricardian model, we learned that free trade increases relative prices in the export sector and decreases relative prices in the import sector, and this in turn affects the earnings of factors of production.Mobile factors can offset losses more easily than specific, or fixed fa

5、ctors.第2页/共46页The Home CountryIn each industry, increases in the amount of labor used are subject to diminishing returns, that is, the marginal product of labor declines as the amount of labor used in the industry increases.Well continue to use two countries: Home and Foreign.Manufacturing uses labo

6、r and capital, and agriculture uses labor and land.第3页/共46页The Home CountryFIGURE 3-1Panel (a) Manufacturing Output As more labor is used, manufacturing output increases, but it does so at a diminishing rate. Panel (b) Diminishing Marginal Product of Labor An increase in the amount of labor used in

7、manufacturing lowers the marginal product of labor.第4页/共46页The Home CountryFIGURE 3-2Production Possibilities FrontierProduction Possibilities Frontier The production possibilities frontier shows the amount of agricultural and manufacturing outputs that can be produced in the economy with labor.第5页/

8、共46页The Home CountryOpportunity Cost and Prices1 Specific-Factors ModelAs in the Ricardian model, the slope of the PPF equals the opportunity cost or relative price of the good on the horizontal axis: here it is manufacturing.Firms hire labor up to the point where the cost of one more hour of labor

9、(the wage) equals the value of one more hour of labor in production.AAMMMPLPWMPLPW第6页/共46页The Home CountryFIGURE 3-3Increase in the Relative Price of Manufactures In the absence of international trade, the economy produces and consumes at point A.The relative price of manufactures, PM/PA, is the slo

10、pe of the line tangent to the PPF and indifference curve U1, at point A. With international trade, the economy is able to produce at point B and consume at point C.The world relative price of manufactures, (PM/PA)W, is the slope of the line BC. The rise in utility from U1 to U2 is a measure of the g

11、ains from trade for the economy.Opportunity Cost and Prices1 Specific-Factors Model第7页/共46页The Foreign CountryOverall Gains from TradeFor the sake of focusing on one case, let us assume that the Home no-trade relative price of manufacturing is lower than the Foreign relative price, (PM /PA) (P*M /P*

12、A). This assumption means that Home can produce manufactured goods relatively cheaper than Foreign, or, equivalently, that Home has a comparative advantage in manufacturing.The good whose relative price goes up (manufacturing, for Home) is exported and the good whose relative price goes down (agricu

13、lture, for Home) is imported. By exporting manufactured goods at a higher price and importing food at a lower price, Home is better off than it was in the absence of trade.1 Specific-Factors Model第8页/共46页How Large Are the Gains from Trade?There are a few historical examples of countries that have mo

14、ved from autarky (i.e., no trade) to free trade, or vice versa, quickly enough to estimate the gains from trade.One such episode in the United States occurred between December 1807 and March 1809, when the U.S. Congress imposed a nearly complete halt to international trade at the request of Presiden

15、t Thomas Jefferson. A complete stop to all trade is called an embargo. As you might expect, U.S. trade fell dramatically during this period.Another historical case was Japans rapid opening to the world economy in 1854, after 200 years of self-imposed autarky. The gains were not one-sided, however; J

16、apans trading partnerssuch as the United Statesalso gained from being able to trade in the newly opened markets. 第9页/共46页Determination of WagesFIGURE 3-4 (1 of 2)The amount of labor used in manufacturing is measured from left to right along the horizontal axis, and the amount of labor used in agricu

17、lture is measured from right to left. Allocation of Labor between Manufacturing and Agriculture第10页/共46页Determination of WagesFIGURE 3-4 (2 of 2)Allocation of Labor between Manufacturing and Agriculture (continued)Labor market equilibrium is at point A. At the equilibrium wage of W, manufacturing us

18、es 0ML units of labor and agriculture uses 0AL units.第11页/共46页Change in Relative Price of ManufacturesFIGURE 3-5Increase in the Price of Manufactured Goods With an increase in the price of the manufactured good, the curve PM MPLM shifts up to PM MPLM and the equilibrium shifts from point A to point

19、B.The amount of labor used in manufacturing rises from 0ML to 0ML, and the amount of labor used in agriculture falls from 0AL to 0AL. The wage increases from W to W, but this increase is less than the upward shift PM MPLM.第12页/共46页Change in Relative Price of ManufacturesEffect on the Wage An increas

20、e in the relative price of manufacturing PM/PA can occur due to either an increase in PM or a decrease in PA. Both these price movements will have the same effect on the real wage, that is, on the amount of manufactures and food that a worker can afford to buy.第13页/共46页Change in Relative Price of Ma

21、nufacturesEffect on Real Wages Notice that the increase in the wage from W to W is less than the vertical increase PM MPLM that occurred in the PM MPLM curve. When W/W PM /PM, then the percentage increase in the wage is less than the percentage increase in the price of the manufactured good. This in

22、equality means that the amount of the manufactured good that can be purchased with the wage has fallen, so the real wage in terms of the manufactured good W/PM has decreased.FIGURE 3-5 (reproduced)第14页/共46页Change in Relative Price of ManufacturesOverall Impact on Labor In the specific-factors model,

23、 the increase in the price of the manufactured good has an ambiguous effect on the real wage and therefore an ambiguous effect on the well-being of workers.Although ambiguous, this conclusion is important.The result is different than what was found in the Ricardian model, where labor unambiguously e

24、arned a higher real wage.This warns us that one cannot make unqualified statements about the effects of trade on workers.The effect of trade on real wages can be complex.第15页/共46页Change in Relative Price of ManufacturesUnemployment in the Specific-Factors Model It is hard to combine business cycle m

25、odels with international trade models to isolate the effects of trade on workers. Once we recognize that workers can find new jobspossibly in export industries that are expandingthen we still cannot conclude that trade is necessarily good or bad for workers.In the two applications that follow, we lo

26、ok at some evidence from the United States on the amount of time it takes to find new jobs and on the wages earned, and at attempts by governments to compensate workers who lose their jobs because of import competition. This type of compensation is called Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) in the Uni

27、ted States.第16页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages across SectorsA larger sector in industrialized countries is that of services, which includes wholesale and retail trade, finance, law, education, information technology, software engineering, consulting, and m

28、edical and government services.第17页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages across SectorsFIGURE 3-6Employment in the U.S. manufacturing sector is shown on the left axis, and the share of manufacturing employment in total U.S. employment is shown on the right axis.

29、Both manufacturing employment and its share in total employment have been falling over time, indicating that the service sector has been growing.U.S. Manufacturing Sector Employment, 19732009第18页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages across SectorsFIGURE 3-7 (1 of

30、 2)This chart shows the real wages (in constant 2008 dollars) earned by production workers in U.S. manufacturing, in all private services, and in information services (a subset of all private services).Real Hourly Earnings of Production Workers第19页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States

31、: Employment and Wages across SectorsFIGURE 3-7 (2 of 2)While wages were slightly higher in manufacturing than in all private services from 1974 through 2007, all private service wages have been higher since 2008. This change is due in part to the effect of wages in the information service industry,

32、 which are substantially higher than those in manufacturing. Real wages for production workers fell in most years between 1979 and 1995 but have been rising since then.Real Hourly Earnings of Production Workers (continued)第20页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages

33、 across SectorsTABLE 3-1 (1 of 3)Job Losses in Manufacturing and Service Industries, 20052009 This table shows the number of displaced (or laid-off) workers in manufacturing and service industries from 2005 to 2009. 第21页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages acros

34、s SectorsTABLE 3-1 (2 of 3)Job Losses in Manufacturing and Service Industries, 20052009 This table shows the number of displaced (or laid-off) workers in manufacturing and service industries from 2005 to 2009. Between 64% and 68% of the workers displaced from 2005 to 2007 were re-employed by January

35、 2008, with about one-half earning less in their new jobs and one-half earning the same or more, with slightly more workers reemployed in service industries earning more at their new job. APPLICATION第22页/共46页Manufacturing and Services in the United States: Employment and Wages across SectorsTABLE 3-

36、1 (3 of 3)Job Losses in Manufacturing and Service Industries, 20052009 This table shows the number of displaced (or laid-off) workers in manufacturing and service industries from 2005 to 2009. n.a. = not available.However the recession that began in 2008 clearly increase the number of displaced work

37、ers From January 2008 to December 2009 the total number of displaced workers increased to 5.1 million, of which 2.1 million had been employed in manufacturing.APPLICATION第23页/共46页Trade Adjustment Assistance Programs: Financing the Adjustment Costs of TradeThe unemployment insurance program in the Un

38、ited States provides some compensation, regardless of the reason for the layoff. In addition, the Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) program offers additional unemployment insurance payments and health insurance to workers who are laid off because of import competition and who are enrolled in a retra

39、ining program.Other countries also have programs like TAA to compensate those harmed by trade.第24页/共46页Kennedy first introduced the Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) in the United States in 1962, for workers in manufacturing.Kennedys concerns remain relevant: Technology and trade mean growth, innova

40、tion and better living standards, but also change and instability.TAA was recently extended to include service workersKennedys innovation is thus adapted to the 21st-century economy, guaranteeing todays workers the support their grandparents enjoyed.HEADLINESServices Workers Are Now Eligible for Tra

41、de Adjustment Assistance第25页/共46页Determining the Payments to Capital and LandIf QM is the output in manufacturing and QA is the output in agriculture, the revenue earned in each industry is PM QM and PA QA, and the payments to capital and to land are:Payments to capital = PM QM W LMPayments to land

42、= PA QA W LA第26页/共46页Determining the Payments to Capital and LandThe earnings of one unit of capital (a machine, for instance), which we call RK, and the earnings of an acre of land, which we call RT, are calculated as:Economists call RK the rental on capital and RT the rental on land.第27页/共46页Deter

43、mining the Payments to Capital and LandChange in the Real Rental on CapitalAs more labor is used in manufacturing, the marginal product of capital will rise because each machine has more labor to work it. In addition, as labor leaves agriculture, the marginal product of land will fall because each a

44、cre of land has fewer laborers to work it. The general conclusion is that an increase in the quantity of labor used in an industry will raise the marginal product of the factor specific to that industry, and a decrease in labor will lower the marginal product of the specific factor.第28页/共46页Determin

45、ing the Payments to Capital and LandWith labor leaving agriculture, the marginal product of each acre falls, so RT/PA also falls. The fact that RT /PA falls means that the real rental on land in terms of food has gone down, so landowners cannot afford to buy as much food. Thus, landowners are clearl

46、y worse off from the rise in the price of the manufactured good because they can afford to buy less of both goods.第29页/共46页Determining the Payments to Capital and LandSummaryAn increase in the relative price of an industrys output will increase the real rental earned by the factor specific to that i

47、ndustry but will decrease the real rental of factors specific to other industries. This conclusion means that:the specific factors used in export industries will generally gain as trade is opened.the relative price of exports rises.the specific factors used in import industries will generally lose a

48、s trade is opened and the relative price of imports falls.第30页/共46页Numerical ExampleChange in the Real Rental on CapitalChange in the Real Rental on Land第31页/共46页Determining the Payments to Capital and LandGeneral Equation for the Change in Factor PricesThese equations summarize the response of all

49、three factor prices in the short run, when capital and land are specific to each sector but labor is mobile.The specific factor in the sector whose relative price has increased gains.The specific factor in the other sector loses.Labor is “caught in the middle,” with its real wage increasing in terms

50、 of one good but falling in terms of the other.第32页/共46页Prices in AgricultureCoffee PricesFIGURE 3-8 (1 of 3)Real wholesale prices for coffee have fluctuated greatly on world markets. Using 2008 dollars, prices were at a high of about $3.00 per pound in 1986,fell to 83 per pound in 1993, rose to $1.

51、77 in 1995, and then fell to 50 per pound in 2001.World Coffee Market第33页/共46页Prices in AgricultureCoffee PricesFIGURE 3-8 (2 of 3)Since 2001, there has been a sustained increase in both price and quantity, implying a shift in import demand.World Coffee Market (continued) 第34页/共46页Prices in Agricult

52、ureCoffee PricesFIGURE 3-8 (3 of 3)By 2008 prices had risen to $1.24 per pound. Corresponding to these price fluctuations, the quantity of world coffee exports was at a low in 1986 (65 million bags) and at a high in 2008 (97 million bags), as supplies from Brazil and Vietnam increased.World Coffee M

53、arket (continued) 第35页/共46页Prices in AgricultureCoffee Prices Dramatic fluctuations in coffee prices create equally large movements in the real incomes of farmers, making it difficult for them to sustain a living.Fair-Trade Coffee TransFair USA and similar organizations purchase coffee at higher tha

54、n the market price when the market is low (as in 2001), but in other years (like 2005) the fair-trade price is below the market price. Essentially, TransFair USA is offering farmers a form of insurance whereby the fair-trade price of coffee will not fluctuate too much, ensuring them a more stable so

55、urce of income over time.第36页/共46页HEADLINESRise in Coffee PricesGreat for Farmers, Tough on Co-opsGroups like TransFair USA ensure coffee farmers like Santiago Rivera, pictured here, a more stable source of income over time.During winter and spring of the 2005harvest, Fairtrade cooperative managers

56、found itincreasingly difficult to get members to deliver coffee to their own organization at fair-trade prices.Growers were seeing some of the highest prices paid in five years, and the temptation was great to sell their coffee to the highest local bidder, instead of delivering it as promised to the

57、ir own co-ops.The prices rise, in conjunction with the impact fair trade was already having, increased the income and living standardsof coffee farmers around the world.第37页/共46页1. Opening a country to international trade leads to overall gains, but in a model with several factors of production, som

58、e factors of production will lose.K e y T e r m KEY POINTS第38页/共46页2. The fact that some people are harmed because of trade sometimes creates social tensions that may be strong enough to topple governments. A recent example is Bolivia, where the citizens cannot agree on how to share the gains from exporting natural gas.K e y T e r m KEY POINTS第39页/共46页3.In the specific-factors model, factors of production that cannot mo