新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

1、1、定义1. 语言学 LinguisticsLin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study ofIan guage.2. 普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of Ianguage as a whole is often called General lin guistics.3. 语言 IanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communi cati on.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的

2、有声符号体系。4. 识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defi ning poperties of huma n Ian guage thatdist in guish it from any ani mal system of com muni cati on.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrari ness任意性Productivity多产性Duality 双重性Displaceme nt移位性2Cultural tra nsmissi on文化传递(1) arbitrari nessThere is n

3、o logical conn ecti on betwee n meanings and soun ds.P.S the arbitrary n ature of Ian guage is a sig n of sophisticati on and itmakes it possible for Ian guage to havean un limited source of expressi ons ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messagesthey are able to send. DualityLanguage is a

4、 system, which consistsof two sets ofstructures ,or two levels. Displaceme ntLan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediatesituati ons of the speaker.(5) Cultural tran smissi onHuma n capacity for Ian guage has a gen etic basis, but we haveto be taught and lear ned the detail

5、s of any Ian guage system.this showed that Ian guage is culturally tran smitted. n ot byinstinet.animals are born with the capacity to produce the setof calls peculiar to their species.35.语言能力 Compete neeCompete nee is the ideal user s kno wledge of the rules of hisIan guage.6. 语言运用 performaneePerfo

6、rma nee is the actual realizatio n of this kno wledge inlin guistie com muni eatio n.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7. 历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of Ian guage cha nge through time. a diachr onic studyof Ianguage is a historical study, which studies the historical developme ntof Ian guage over a per

7、iod of time.8. 共时语言学 Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a give n Ian guage at a give n time.9. 语言 IangueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all membersof a speech communi ty.10. 言语 paroleThe realizati on of Ian gue in actual use.11. 规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for” correct ” beh

8、avior, to tell4people what they should say and what should not say.12. 描述性 DescriptiveA lin guistic study describes and an alyzes the Ian guage people actuallyuse.二、知识点1anguage is not an isolatedphenomenon, it s a socialactivity carried out in a certa in social en vir onment by huma n bein gs.语言不是一种

9、孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种 社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue 禾口 parole 的 区别U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家 N.Chomskyin 1950 针对 Saussure s Ian gue&parole 提出 Compete nee 禾口performa nee曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-Ianguage is a purely human and non-instinctivemethodof com muni cati

10、 on ideas, emoti ons and desires by means of volun tarilyproduced symbols.Hall-Ianguage is the institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary5symbols.Chomsky-from now on I will con sider Ian guage to be a set ofsentences, each f

11、initein length and constructed out of a finiteset of eleme nts. U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家 Charles Hockett提出了语言的识别特征 design features3.the word anguage preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular Ian guage.Lan guage 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.i n ord

12、er to discover the n ature of the un derl ying Ian guagesystem ,what the linguists has to do first if to study Ianguage facts.5an guage is a complicated en tity with multiple layers andfacts, so its hardly possible for the linguisticsto deal withit all at o nee.判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the l

13、inguists were the sounds used in Ianguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题l.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics-it s defined as the study of the phonic mediumof Ianguage, it s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s6Ianguages.Phonology-thestudy of sounds sy

14、stems the inventoryofdisti nctive sounds that occur in a Ian guage and the patter ns into whichthey fall.Morphology-It s a branch of a grammar which studies thein ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax- its a subfield of lin guistics that studies thesentence structu

15、re of a Ian guage.Semantics-It s simply defined as the study of meaning inabstracti on.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in con text of words.Sociolinguistics the study of Ianguage with referenee tosociety.Psycholinguistics-the study of Ian guage with refere nee tothe work ing of the mind.Applied lin

16、guistics-theapplicatio n oflin guisticprin ciples and theories to Ian guage teach ing and lear ning.2.why do we say Ian guage is arbitrary?Lan guage is arbitrary in the sense that there is no in tri nsicconn ecti on betwee n the sounds that people use and the objects to whichthese sounds refer.7The

17、fact that differentIanguages have differentwords for thesame object is a good illustrati on of the arbitrary n ature ofIanguage, it s only our tacit agreement of utteranee and con cept at workand not any inn ate relati on ship bound up in the uttera nee.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrarin

18、ess of Ianguage is arose by any other namewould smell as sweet.3. what makes moder n lin guistics differe nt from traditi onal grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authe nticand mainly spoke n Ian guage date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar

19、 is prescriptive. it is based on high writte n Ian guage.传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。4s moder n lin guistics mai nly synchronic or diachr onic? whyModern linguisticsis mainly synchronic,focusing on theprese nt-day Ian guage. uni ess the various states of a Ian guageare successfully studied, it will not be pos

20、sible to describeIan guage from a diachr onic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种 状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。85.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writi ngs?Speech enjoys for the followi ng reas ons: Speech precedes writi ng in terms of evolutio n.(2) A large amount of

21、 com muni catio n is carried out in speech tha n inwriti ng. speech is the form in which infants acquire their n ativeIan guage.6.how is Saussure s distinction between Iangue and parole similar toChomsky s ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the dist in cti on betwee n the abstractIanguage system and th

22、e actual use of Ianguage. their purpose is to singleout the Ianguage system for serious study Twolinguists idea differ in thatSaussure took a sociological view of Ianguage, Chomsky looks atIanguage from a psychological point of view, compete nee is a property ofthe mind of each in dividual.6.the dis

23、t in cti on betwee n Ian gue and parole? Iangue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies frompers on to pers on, from situati on to situatio n.91/ What is lin guistics?什么是语言学？Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study ofIanguage. It studies not any particularIangua

24、ge, but Ianguages ingen eral.2/ The scope of lin guistics语言学的研究范畴The study of Ianguage as a whole is often calledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）The study of soun ds, which are used in lin guisticcom muni cati on,is called pho netics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in com muni cati

25、on iscalled phono logy.（音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arran ged to formwords is called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form senten cesis called syn tax（句法学）The study of meaning in Ian guage is called sema ntics.（语义学）10The study of meaning in con

26、 text of use is called pragmatics.（语用学）The study of Ianguage with referenee to society is called socio-li nguistics.（社会语言学）The study of Ianguage with reference to the working of mind is calledpsycho-li nguistics.（心理语言学）The study of applicati ons （as the recovery of speech ability）is gen erally known

27、 as applied lin guistics.（应用语言学） Butin a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the applicati onof lin guisticprin ciples and theories toIan guageteachi ng and lear ning, especially the teachi ng of foreig n and sec ond Ianguage.Other related bran ches in clude an thropological li nguistics,（人

28、类语 言学） neurological linguistics,（神 经语 言学）mathematical li nguistics,（数字语言学）and computati onallin guistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some importa nt disti ncti ons in lin guistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念11Prescriptive and descriptive规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the Ianguage people actuallyuse, it is said t

29、o be descriptive, if it aimsto lay dow n rules to tell people what they should say and whatthey should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Moder n lin guisticsdiffers fromtraditi onalgrammar.Traditi onal grammar is prescriptive while moder n lin guisticsis descriptive. The task of lin guists is s

30、upposed to describe the Ianguagepeople actually use, whether it is “ correct ” or not.Synchronic and diachr onic共时和历时The description of a Ianguage at some point in time is a synchronic study;the descripti on of a Ian guage as it cha nges through time is a diachr onicstudy .In moder n lin guistics, s

31、ynchronic study is more importa nt.Speech and writi ng口头语与书面语Speech and writi ng are the two major media of com muni catio n.Modern linguisticsregards the spoken form of Ianguage asprimary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many Ian guages that hav

32、e only the spoken form; 3.In termsof function, the spoken12Ianguage is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, andcarries a larger load of com muni cati on tha n the writte n.Lan gue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguistF. de Saussure madethe distinctionbetweenIan gue and parole early 20th

33、 cen tury.Lan gue refers to the abstract lin guistic system shared by allthe members of a speech com muni ty, and parole refers to therealization of Iangue in actual use. Saussure made the dist in cti on inorder to sin gle out one aspect of Ian guage forserious study. He believes what linguistsshoul

34、d do is toabstract Iangue from parole, to discover the regularities governing theactual use of Ianguage and makethem the subjects of study of lin guistics.Compete nee and performa nee 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by America n lin guist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.Hedefi nes compete nee as the ideal user s kno

35、 wledge of the rules of hisIanguage, and performanee the actual realization of this kno wledge in linguistic com muni cati on. He believes the task of the lin guists is todiscover and specify the Ian guage rules.13Chapter Two Phono logy一、定义1. 宽式音标 Broad transcriptionThe tra nscripti on of speech sou

36、nds with letter symbols on ly.2. 窄式音标 Narrow transcriptionThe transcriptionof speech sound with letters symbols and the14diacritics.3. 清音 VoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,lettingair gothrough without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a con dition are called voiceless

37、soun ds.4. 浊音 VoicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibratingare calledvoiced soun ds.5. 元音 VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators comevery closetogether and the air stream passes through the vocal tract withoutobstructi on are called vowels.6. 辅音 ConsonantsThe sounds

38、in the producti on of which there is an obstructi onof the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonan ts.7. 音位 PhonemeThe basic unit in pho no logy, it s a collecti on of disti nctive phon eticfeatures.8. 音位变体 AllophonesDiffere nt phones which can represe nt a phon eme in differ

39、e nt15en vir onments are called the allopho nes of that phon eme.9. 音素 phoneA phon etic un it or segme nt. it does not n ecessarily disti nguish meaning,it s a speech sound we use when speaking a Ianguage.10. 最小对立对 Minimal pairWhentwo differentforms are identical in every way except forone sound seg

40、ment which occurs in the sameplace in the strings, the twowords are said to form a mini mal pair.11. 超切分特征 SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment arecalled suprasegme ntal features. the main suprasegme ntal features include stress ,inton ati on and tone.12. 互补分

41、布 complementary distribution P35Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compleme ntarydistributi on.13. 语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of IanguageThe limited range of sounds which are meanin gful in huma ncom muni cati on and are of in terest to lin guistic studies are the phonicmedium of Ian gu

42、age.16在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的 声音是语音媒介。14. 爆破音 stopsWhe n a obstructi on created by the speech orga ns is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out aga in is called a stop or a plosive.they areb p t d k g二、知识点1. statistics result ing from

43、careful inv estigati ons show thatthere have bee n over5,000la nguages in the world, about twothirds of which have not had writte n form.2. of the two media of Ian guage,speech ismore basic tha nwrit in g.3. Pho netic组成 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 Iongest established, mostlydevelopedAuditory pho ne

44、tics听觉语音学Acoustic phon etics声学语音学4. articulatoryApparatus /Orga ns of SpeechPharyngeal cavity-咽腔17Oral .口腔 greatest source of modification of airstream found hereNasal-鼻腔5. The tongue is the most flexible,responsiblefor morevarieties of articulati on tha n any other, the extreme back ofthe ton gue c

45、an be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can bethus produced as is used in Arabic and Fre nch.6.Obstructionbetween the back of the tongue and the velar arearesults in the pronun ciati on ofk an dg,the n arrowi ng ofspace between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to thesoundj

46、;the obstruction created between the tip of the ton gue and thealveolar ridge results in the soun dsta ndd.7.nasal consonants: m / n / n9. A Phone is a phon etic un it or segme nt.1O.Seque ntial rules 例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beg inningof a word, the comb in ati on should

47、 obey the followi ng threerules: the first phon eme must be /s/ the sec ond pho neme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/18 the third pho neme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w11.E nglish has four basic types ofinton ati on:Falli ngton e;Risi ng ton e;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题I.what are the three branches of

48、phonetics? how do they con tribute tothe study of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech orga ns work to produce thespeech sounds and how they differ.Auditory- - studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches theimportant conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoret

49、ical ideal.Acoustic- - studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the waysound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质， 得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的 传播方式。2. how are the En glish consonants classified?By place of articulat

50、i on and By manner of articulati on3. how do phon etics and phono logy differ in their focus of study?who do you thi nk will be more in terested in the differe nt betwee n19sayia ndi,pan dph,aphon eticia nor aphilologist? why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同？语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别？为什么？Phon etics descripti on of all

51、speech sounds and their finddiffere nces.Phono logy descripti onof sound systems of particularIan guages and how sounds fun cti on to disti nguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos suchdiffere nces will not cos differe nces in meaning.4. what s a phone? how is it

52、 different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phon eme?Phone a speech sound ,a pho netic un it.Phon eme-a collectio nof abstract sound features, aphono logical un it.Allophones-actualrealizationof a phoneme in differentphon etic con texts.5. what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why

53、 is it importantto ide ntify the mi ni mal set in a Ian guage?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要？Mini mal pair two sound comb in ati ons ide ntical in every way20except in one sound eleme nt that occurs in the same positi on.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外，其他部分都一样的两个 语音组合.Mini mal set a group of sound comb in ati onswith the

54、 abovefeature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.By identifyingthe minimal pair or the minimal set of a Ianguage,a philologist can ide ntify its phon emes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组，音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcripti on differ?Broad tran scripti on one letter symbol for on

55、e sound.Narrow transcription diacriticsare added to the one-lettersymbols to show the finer differe nces betwee n soun ds.7. expla in the seque ntial rule ,the assimilatio n rule and the deleti on rule.有序规则 Sequential rulesRules that gover n the comb in ati on of sounds in a particularIan guage.同化规则

56、 Assimilation rules21The assimilatio n rule assimilates one sound to ano ther bycopying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two pho nessimilar.省略规则 Deletion ruleIt s a pho no logical rule which tells us whe n a sound is to bedeleted although its orthographically represe nted.Chapter T

57、hree Morphology一、定义1. 词素 MorphemeThe basic un it in the study of morphology and the smallest meanin gful un22it of Ian guage.2. 自由词素 Free MorphemeFree morphemes are in depe ndent un its of meaning and can be usedfreely all by themselves.3. 黍占着词素 Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes tha

58、t canot be used bythemselves, must be combined with other morphemesto form words thatcan be used in depe nden tly.4. 词根 RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be furtheran alyzed without total loss of ide ntity.5. 词缀 AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only

59、whe nadded to ano ther morpheme.6. 曲折词缀 inflectional affixesThe man ifestatio n of grammatical relati on ships through theaddition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, tense, degreeand case.7. 派生词缀 Derivational affixesThe manifestation of relationbetween stems and affixesthrough the additi on of

60、derivati onal affixes.238. 词干 StemA stem is the existi ng form to which a derivatio nal affixcan be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, ora derived form itself.9. 形态学规则 Morphological rulesThey are rules that gover n which affix can be added to whattype of stem to form a new word.10. 前缀 P