《语言学导论》重点整理

1、1 .An Introduction toLinguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. It endeavors to answer thequestion-what is language and how isrepresented in the mind? Linguists focuson describing and explaining languageand are not concerned with theprescriptive ru

2、les of the language.2. Basic criteria for doingLinguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as awholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguisticmunicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns oflangua

3、ge. It is concerned with how sounds are puttogether and used to convey meaning inmunication.Morphology : the study of the way in which thesymbols are arranged and bined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. Itattempts to describe what is grammatical i

4、n aparticular language in term of rulesSemantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects oflanguage and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language withrelation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of

5、applications oflinguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and parolepetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modernlinguistics(linguistics is descriptive whiletraditional grammar is prescriptive; modernlinguistics

6、 regards spoken language as primary,not the written; modern linguistics differs fromtraditional grammar in that it does not forcelanguage into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract constructionof the learned, or of dictionary-makers,but is something arising out of

7、the work,needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of longgenerations of humanity, and has itsbases broad and low, close to the ground.Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a systemof arbitraryvocal symbols used for humanmunication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majori

8、ty of linguisticexpressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds andmeanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman,dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language aremeaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. As

9、signmentsment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features oflanguage.What is your understanding ofsynchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics andphonology1. Phonetics: the sounds oflanguageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发音语音学: theproduction of speech sounds.Au

10、ditory Phonetics听觉语音学: the study ofthe perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语音学: the study ofthe physical production and transmission ofspeech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity口腔3.The nasal cavity鼻腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标音:tr

11、anscription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标音:transcription with letter-symbols and thediacritics4. Classification of Englishconsonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns oflanguageDifferencePhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, plementarydistribution

12、, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns oflanguage( i.e. how sounds are arranged to formmeaningful units) and the function of eachsound. It reveals what are the possiblebinations of sounds in a language andexplains why certain words take the form the

13、ydo.8. Phone 音素phone: the smallest perceptible discretesegment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unitii) not distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or producediv) marked with 9. Phoneme 音位the minimal unit in the sound system of alanguage. With phonemes, we establish thepatterns of orga

14、nization within the infinitelylarge number of sounds. Each language can beshown to operate with a relatively smallnumber of phonemes (15-80). No twolanguages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme 音位i) phonological unitii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physicaliv) marked with / /.11.Th

15、ree requirements for identifying minimalpairs:1) different in meaning;2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the samephonetic environment.Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone 音位变体: phonic variants/realizations of aphoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonol

16、ogical patterning is rule-governed. blikand kilb, though not found in English, can bepossible binations, while kbil or lkibcannot. Sequential rules are those that accountfor the bination of sounds in a particularlanguage. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* tlait iltrit13.Sequenti

17、al ruleIf three consonants should cluster together atthe beginning of a word, the binationshould follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/.spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assim

18、ilation ruleQuestion: What other examples?sink /sincepan cakesun glassesfive past sevenhas to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may beorthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental 超切分phonologySuprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stres

19、s重音Word stress/sentence stressPrimary stress/secondary stressStress of pounds:blackbird / black bird;greenhouse / green houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of thewords; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调Different rates of vibration producedifferent frequencies, which are termedas

20、different pitches. Pitch variations aredistinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitchvariations are called tones. Languagesusing tones are tone languages.19. Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations aretied to the sentence, they bine tobee known as intonation.Three major ty

21、pes of English intonation:a. falling tone/tuneb. rising tone/tunec. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics andphonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, plementarydistribution, minimal pair3. Morphology词法1. Morphology is the study of wordformation and structure. It

22、 studies howwords are put together from theirsmaller parts and the rules governingthis process.2. Two kinds of words3. Word RelationsWords can be related to other words, e.g.happy unhappy.The rules that relate such sets of wordsare called Word Formation Rules. Thus,the morphology containsfundamental

23、 elements morphemesrules of bination - Word FormationRules4. MorphemesThe elements that are bining to formwords are called morphemes. A morpheme isthe smallest unit of meaning you can have ina language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3.

24、 a rule of bination (put itbefore/after/inside the stem)5. A case: UnhappyHappierunhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes In the word doors there are two morphemes:door and -s.The morpheme door can be used by itself, soit is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme s cannot be used by itself:How many doo

25、rs did you shut?More than one. OKs Not OKTherefore, -s is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make otherfree forms are called affixes. There are fourprinciple kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) un- in unable2. suffixes (at end) -ed in walked3. circumfixes (at

26、both ends) en-en inenlighten(These always seem to consist of otherwiseattested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) - -bloody- in inbloody-credible8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or maynot change the category, orgrammatical class of words.E.g. Noun- Adject

27、iveaffection + atealcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax(sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGY Some examples are:personnumbergendernoun classcasetenseInflectional morphemes never change thecategory. Inflectional morphemes do notchange the core meani

28、ng of the word.Inflectional morphemes usually occuroutside derivational ones.10. A Rule for Forming someEnglish Words11. pounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existingstructural devices in the languagederivation poundingderivationalaffixati

29、onclipping,abbreviation,acronymsconversion14. Word formation* affixation* coinage: Ford, Kodak* pounding/position: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, mote

30、l, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym)* borrowing: tea, algebra15. pare the following derivedwords: in how far do they differ?LabOED16. pare the following derivedwords: in how far do they differ?labbabysit (from: babysitter)17. pare the following derivedwords: in how far do they differ?in

31、stitution-alskin-deep18. pare the following derivedwords: in how far do they differ?to strength-ento house (e.g. this building houses 500families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms:Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivation

32、almorphemeList some rules of word formation4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics thatstudies how words are bined to formsentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we BINE WORDS tomake SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees(just as in morphology) but the tree

33、s arebuilt on WORDS instead of morphemes.Words are the fundamental units ofsentences. The laws of bination forwords are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure insentences separate from the meaning ofthe sentence because of the differencebetween well formed nonsense

34、(1) andtotal gibberish (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.(2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boyV(Verb) run, buyA(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, inMinor lexical categoriesDet (determ

35、iner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, veryQual (Qualifier) often, alwaysAux(Auxiliary) must, shouldCon (Conjunction) and, but5. Three criteria for judging thewords categories1.meaning Nounentity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a

36、 headplus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP)Verb Phrase (VP)Adjective Phrase (AP)Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, plementHead: the word around which a phraseis formedSpecifier: the words on the left side ofthe headsplement: the words on the right sideof the headsE.g. a touching story a

37、bout a sentimentalgirl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP (Det)N (PP)VP (Qual) V ( NP)AP (Deg)A (PP)PP (Deg) P (NP)9. XP ruleX= N, V, A or PXP (specifier) X (plement)10. X theoryXP (specifier) XX - X(plement)11. Co-ordination rulesX X Con X12. XP rule (revised):XP (specifier) X (plement )Matrix clauseplemen

38、t phrase (CP)plement clauseplementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAPPPAdvPThe expanded XP rulesXP (spec)(Mod) X(plement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P DetN| | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then mightwant to change it, for example to turn it into

39、aquestion.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? Ismoved to the front. How did we make theyes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surfacestructure:Deep structure is a level of syntacticrepresentation that results from insertion

40、 oflexical items into the tree structure generatedby the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntacticrepresentation that results from theapplication of whatever transformations areneeded to yield the final syntactic form of thesentence.17. The organization of thesyntactic ponentT

41、he XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning ofthe sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifierposition under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose theorder of the constituents in a phrasestructure rule.English: PP P NPJapanese: P

42、P NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in asimple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object orSVO. There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S NP VPS VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP V NPVP NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence“The boy saw the man with thetelescope. 5. Semanti

43、cs1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the wordmean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does unique mean?(2) When Mary talks about her ex shemeans me.(3) Purchase means the same as buy.(4) Gwailou means foreign devil.(5) When he drinks it means hesdepressed.(6

44、) I didnt mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards TheMeaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the wordsmean/meaning were distinguished. Hereare some of them:John means to write. intendsA green light means go. indicatesHealth means everything. has importanceHis look was full of meaning.

45、special importWhat is the meaning of life? point, purposeWhat does capitalist mean to you? conveyWhat does cornea(角膜)mean? refer to inthe world4. What does meaning mean inlinguistics?It is the last kind of use that es closest to thefocus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics,the meaning is

46、studied by making detailed analysesof the way words and sentences are used in specificcontexts (meaning is not some kind of entityseparate from language - any more than measuressuch as height or length have some kind ofindependent existence). This is an approach sharedby a number of philosophers and

47、 psychologists.Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular,stressed its importance in his dictum: The meaningof a word is its use in the language.5. 4 views concerning the studyof meaningThe naming theoryThe conceptual theoryContextualismbehaviorism6. The naming theoryPlatoWords are names or lab

48、els for things.Limitations of the theory: it can beapplicable to nouns only, but verbs,adjectives, and adverbs are not names orlabels; imaginary things like“dragon;abstract nouns like “joy7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ (Sense) / / (language) WOR

49、DS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig WittgensteinMalinowski2 kinds of contexts: the situationalcontext and the linguistic context9

50、. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs.mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS - r . s - R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a NounPhrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of aNoun Phrase

51、 which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaningnever plete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small ch

52、ange andlittle sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive orevaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye organ of sight, center ofhurricane , hole in needledifferent words, same sou

53、ndbear carry bear furry creaturebare nakedcf. Homonymy, Homography:different words, same spellingbow knotted ribbon bow front ofshipsuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinateAlso: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle nonesweet - sour - bitter Tastes , butno Adjchair - sofa - couch ? sittin

54、gfurniture (Sitzmbel)11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms:cold. . hot(2) plementary antonyms:dead - alive(3) Relational opposites:teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations betweensentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d)

55、 X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisiteof X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 ponential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = +human +adult +malewoman = +human +adult+femalegirl

56、 = +human -adult +femaleboy = +human -adult +malestool = +sitting +legs -back -arms+single personchair = +sitting +legs +back +/-arms +single personsofa = +sitting +/-legs +back+arms -single person etccow = +bovine +adult +femaleewe = +ovine +adult +femalebull = +bovine +adult +maleram = +ovine +adu

57、lt +malecalf = +bovine - adultlamb = +ovine -adultBut should calf = +/-female +/-male orsimply unspecified?And what about: steer? = +bovine +adult-male -female13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In hisframework of analysis, the basic unit iscalled predication, which is theabstraction

58、 of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of arguments andpredicate. An argument is a logicalparticipant in a predication. A predicateis something said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking thearguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature ofsemantics (1)philosop

59、hy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning;structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization,learninglaw: interpretation, entailmenttranslation: translatability, paraphraseputer science: processing andrepresentation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature ofsema

60、ntics(2)musicology: musical meaning (JosephSwain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning,relativityliterary criticism: interpretation,ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What didJesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to thestudies on meaning.Specify