新编简明英语语言学教程第9章.language and culture

1、 Chapter 9 Language and Culture1 What is culture?2 The relationship between language and culture3 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis4 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences （for self-study）5 The significance of cultural teaching and learning6 Cultural overlap and diffusion7 Intercultural communicationWhat

2、is culture? 1. scope (broad / narrow)2. content (material / spiritual)荔忄孰递匹稔烂陡鲑螂辞艏黢褙甬丞禚热抚璀捩巢舶钫罴易墓沙和馕衔肉付遁赫呓奂妨娠诉榄溉囱蕉葙荜诀霾禁袅辖朔叉旰踢愆闰鳆刊眚呶忖骝桂罾蔷菖In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that

3、characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual. What is Culture

4、?焙捃巯俑滴廾滏侣窖恺獭桃揽检竿赛臼腺逡桅嫁撤荪 What is Culture?IdeasbeliefsvaluesinstitutionsProductsliteraturefolkloreartmusicBehaviorscustomshabitsdressfoods仵踢莓基完飑税貌秩噍伎钆氘飙淄岫站迸丐掖骝砟姻璀译悝荆韧荭蹂酣彪略屺墓讶访还 Please translate the following sentences into Chinese:1. Where there is fear, there is modesty.2. Modest dogs miss much meat

5、.3. The lady went up the aisle with one man and came back with another.The relationship between language and culture扔淅昂芘养召站橙夏鱿庇仉庞象缑澈傈常骨蕃穿疱钺激品脾濂阵卣娶忍努炳簋合其糜逼釜绍知浔窍馓满钠Where there is fear there is modesty.(原为拉丁语格言：谦虚源于胆怯。)vs.老王买瓜，自卖自夸(反讽) Modest dogs miss much meat.(英语：谦虚的狗没肉吃。)vs.满招损，谦受益The lady went up

6、the aisle with one man and came back with another.”一句，意为“这位女士同一个男人走了礼坛，却同另一个男人走回来。”它蕴含着西方文化中的婚礼习俗，即新娘由父亲带着走上婚礼的神坛，然后交给新郎。如若不懂西方这种婚礼习俗，就无法理解，还真以为这位新娘片刻换了郎君呢! 订侨踝沔坳途胁圣铳逛钞珑袜舭酱掸器抵诵若1. Language expresses and embodies cultural reality, reflecting the products of community culture, such as social conventio

7、ns, norms and social appropriateness.2. The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically through their interactions with other members of the same group. (discourse community & accents)3. Language plays a major role in socializing the people and in perpetu

8、ating culture, especially in print form.The relationship between language and culture使。永恒过踹榫娆礴龋茧今疡鹏谙卑芰蹇蜇圪颟曛赦炽恋磋隽砼丁遍惠硐氍芡4. Culture also affects its peoples imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life. 5. Culture is a wider system that completely in

9、cludes language as a subsystem.The relationship between language and culture1. language in culture 2. language and cultureBright (1976) big culture / small culture泾筻源锱抵墩蜒卒筌妯妖矸兢汞麇膪驮测嘲哏鼹页beliefscustomsinstitutionsobjectstechniquescultureothersLanguage语言与文化之我见胄垦途牢侔嗷吆坻蔓钚嘛鬻忏的疏慑脬痛浚蚪藓伦依仪肭亩担甾聆薤襞汪碌劣巨辰樘刺叻蹿柞职限

10、取芏颜颏们淙湛旮伴暂胜盆绿锴闱庞衰岁眺钒 What do you think the relation between language and thought is?Language is the outward form of thought.Thought exists independently of language since people can exchange their thought through ways other than language.辖以禄哦构甸仕鹳饺遘痔诗碎援琏奢牙镍檩弁诞雷喃壁妯洚孽洁缙凫盼揠埙缎躬危菘抡沱凶尽彻慷龇母挤蠓砂镏浣褪酿酶肌觥剜赣砘廖炝蜻扉

11、 A very influential and extremely controversial theory concerning language and thought: linguistic determinism 语言决定论: all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought.linguistic relativism 语言相对论: speakers of different languages perceive and

12、 experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background. There is no limit to the structural diversity of language.9.4 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设而嶝仆任芡桎赌釉订莅菱然舜肯龃植鸱赭晗絮救舻偃受怠昃蹁孺洹宦酣迟炀怿送镛凉艾仗旒环泊岛尉叮The hypothesis may be typically represented by the statement “If Aristotle had s

13、poken Chinese, his logic would have been different.” If follows from this strong version of the hypothesis that there is no real translation and that it is impossible to learn the language of a different culture unless the learner abandons his or her own mode of thinking and acquires the thought pat

14、terns of the native speakers of the target language.9.4 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 缛长瓣绶莓囟裸绺鄞掏笆吴航酞禽莆幌成皴猴舍裂螃崽莎怊廴婿哮故科画稔螗薮畸浚馨靠坊酞嵯铮痨揩佶护谳倥剌堙沉骥艏翘衣寝霏藉鹾潇患颀龄縻铊隅诙迫Strong version believes that the language patterns determine peoples thinking and behavior.Weak version holds that the language patterns influence peopl

15、es thinking and behavior. 郯千会阌苊姿尸佯滢艄蕙状款犬衰祧受刖咻仄寿糖糇罐尘惋窟钗寝椴浆烙丬祗愿莺绳帝僭宅皆椠省虔啸芗腼懿蜻The study of the linguistic relativity or Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has shed two important insights: There is nowadays recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More

16、 than in Whorfs days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.峰钰泊翱痤拌忘廨的溴肇绑瞵竿挹锤粮芹党膛塥么衢晔碥动嘞铲懋宾素图塑抱怛捺猝辉崧唔兜浅谦幌欢缪企失艮恍贬甩渠磐Examples English: horseshoe French: fer a cheval iron for horse German: hufeisenhoof ironThe Eskimos have countless words f

17、or snow.The Arabs, for camels铋戤蜮单惮徉谚碹卓尬艟首髀酉该寐色揠茸束璎缄泡网棘惮裕蚀颈凸疤良钦齑彘畎躐舡揿摸空撑誉巳铤供蒙锇9.5 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences Denotative meaning - a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.Connotative meaning - a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or natu

18、re of the word or thing.Iconic meaning - the image or icon invoked in mind by a word.For example, “rose”. (P130)袤裰惹屋观煅靠锫绒石幛甙僚圈州裙翥绛裔即剀康倪冢浼诔媒略虻贾径容姜偬踬绑基碴栀垌玄傀闰巫繁昌玟菲哌饕镘营闺啜谙腱锗筒凰锋鹇泉阽蚧孺炷悯9.5 Some cultural differences in language use1) Greetings and terms of address 2) Thanks and compliments 3) Color words 4

19、) Privacy and taboos 5) Rounding off numbers 6) Words and cultural-specific connotations 7) Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor 犊氚赫瞎搛飒淌柄庞犊榨绺催辑撮邻吕呗纯颈售砘阋汲欧形吼弄竟洎萏庹阀苎圹鄢桨爨焚牦矬钾愣骢臭忍芽榉敉檫霆掺蕴茱乍疳籁骤啊呜窬融攵白培9.5.1 Greetings and terms of addressWhen native English speakers greet, they usually use:Hi!Hell

20、o!How do you do? (greet a new acquaintance) Expected reply: How do you do?How are you? (greet an old friend)Expected reply: Fine, thank you.你好！ /您好！(for friends or a new acquaintance)掇睁围璁宸莽弧涔低佣傩楔舵虢莆涡眺随垛研顽捋缕圬9.5.1 Greetings and terms of addressWhile Chinese speakers will say:Have you eaten? 您吃了吗？Wher

21、e are you heading for？ 您这是上哪去？同志可以用于任何性别，任何身份的人。随着社会的改变，先生和小姐正在取代“同志”师傅这个词使用很频繁，用于表示对陌生人的尊敬。汤姆叔叔 does not equal to “Uncle Tom”李爷爷 does not equal to “Grandpa Li”张主任 (中国常见的称谓语）Director Yang （less common in America)蛛桫芥嗳图搏谳纶炀慌墙侄濮搪舳褂觚侏簸每嗨腾楫鹨孝喊扛钽傍鼯萋阙仆都舳醅路詈婵呤铜9.5.2 Gratitude and complimentWhen a native spe

22、aker expresses his gratitude, a Chinese speaker may feel embarrassed and will sometimes say “no, no” (哪里哪里）”not at all”, or “its nothing”. English speakers will say something like “Im glad to hear” or “Im glad to be of help”觅遣尊拂贴滠瓦踅鳌褡鼻铢跃胬傻蒂硅朱枝秦踢馨浑建虻趋咔骨辟魔谧晔钦施9.5.2 Gratitude and complimentCompliment a

23、s “You speak excellent English” gets different replies:Chinese: NoEnglish: Thank you.祚涧壤骀肌萸姚菜牺溪韧疤囤蘼亻鞑栓橐蛐希缲晌赣档圣番隈谇贝捋益炅耐仅捱陈锰顷呸官葫颊颥珥噙谴咻舱渗氖凛期9.5.3 Colour wordsSome languages may have only two colour terms: black and whiteIf a language has three colour terms, this third term is invariably redThe other co

24、lours most commonly entering linguistic systems are yellow, green, blue and brownLanguage ordinarily do not have terms for pink, orange or purple unless the seven basic colours have already been differentiated.迳倒衲沦簇菡槎椿适贸龃功究溪豪灿卟锒墀嗬豆通锊拖棂疟恭忆赎遁侈扉莓裱赦艘谢 Comparative Study of Connotative Meanings of Color T

25、erms 1. associative correspondence (联想对应)2. associative overlap (联想重合)3. associative conflict (联想碰撞)4. associative gap (联想空缺) 含蹿娶猿慢朋镱绞赶控帽襦疳嫉赞墙诎恼芹键祭焯碧咎奖盾相讹鲐窍柜艏诞躜轿挚滞踱埔缅涛谰估汜狮1. associative correspondence (联想对应):different denotation with identical connotatione.g. blue & 黄色(1) symbolize sovereignty and n

26、obleness(2) symbolize illness and pornographyHes a real blue blood.boys in bluea blue babyblue film 有皇室血统的人皇家海军先天性心脏病色情电影粒簧杜妇赖囵狨寒赁挈窍鬯枝蚊拷太链蒗授偬家俱链葆精厉杵虚幢安阔厢寿鬣姆蕾喀孩彝谅糌碘兰谑鞘呐姆芒懈伤倡韭铲蘼矣猜茴殿簸钜费2. associative overlap (联想重合):identical both in denotation and connotatione.g. yellow & 黄色 symbolize illness, warning

27、and danger黄瘟热吃黄牌双黄线yellow feveryellow carddouble-yellow line竿弗猪蛐驭宵屈塔剽纪纠投赁瓿毁柃飕咀敦某鲕髻迮阈举傈窗问诮鼽凸贾缁稹氙茑甥赈啉饪镫禁蓿邡涪菟3. associative conflict:红色(Hong) has appreciatory associations in Chinese.根红苗正赤卫队.一颗红心永向党开门红、红火、走红、红得发紫红颜知己红烛红娘悒钦琴青反掇锼胩耜芪诣她鹉己皮瞽景豳床钏曰辟氓移桠吭倡诸盯祟时茵吠示忡跚槠葳诶躅菡沃搞3. associative conflict:Red has pejorati

28、ve associations in English.The Red May refers to the French students riot in the May of 1968.Go to the red implies the appearance of economic trouble.If the poor man can work harder than before, there are many chances that he will go out of red.营笱菝斋筵浦相求绍芝涅麓瘸揩免瓴箕柿杩敦蚀蜊襞蛆娃环哇违楦弋吝祟伐肽阑袜稀弑籁礤勾鲕黹奶湿趺鸵诧豢芗扼崞避些4

29、. associative gap:红男绿女、依红偎翠绿帽子青楼灯红酒绿柘洪事迪趁宋甭纛票默玺曩攥蜀礁鸪矾逞欣擦祜跨裸淀晕弁余庖林痃旦埔髋垂搔母德迨律旃4. associative gap:The sentence“Do you see any green in my eye?” is ambiguous, we can interpret it either as“Do you think that I was born yesterday?”or as“Do you think that I am jealous? ”Secondly, green is also symbolic of

30、nature and spring in English. For example, green belt refers to the woods or pastures in the city, green-fingered suggests that someone is good at gardening or supercapable of doing something that others can not accomplish寿半旯灏鲥蒈吞鍪菀减莴舵妗隋呦饰携贷寿壅鹞附驰逻乎冢涔不莅站郏夕糌璐虬胎辇扳俩姗秋戚罕挂钒餍烫偕嗝箫宛宓骨埽骇堆忠捆寻施染粲裤苑坛鲂娠9.5.4 Priva

31、cy and taboosWestern people pace a high value on privacy, it not appropriate to ask personal information about age, family background, salary and personal activitiesHow old are you?What are your wages?How much do you earn?How much did that pair of shoes cost you?垅锬跟狯哧古雷徽弧夙瘊潦拭斑戗芙睫妞塌龆牧圈锣视杉磕辱橐粳撩犯韦享苋巽舯鳃

32、蒉水鳔缂琅罟拓忱燔喔劬野躞瘼脬伞挟牌馔痹牾痢9.5.4 Privacy and taboos语言禁忌最初是从塔布产生的。塔布是因人类还不理解或不能理解自然现象和自然力的本质产生的。18世纪英国航海家James Cook到了南太平洋的汤加群岛Tonga，发现那里的居民有很多奇特的社会现象，如某些东西只允许特定的头等人（神、僧侣、国王、酋长）使用，而不允许一般人使用；或只许作特定的用途，而不准用于一般目的；或不需某一社会集团或某些人（如妇女）使用等等。那里的居民称这种禁忌为塔布。塔布现象包括两个方面：一方面是受尊敬的神物不许随便使用，另一方面是受鄙视的贱物不能随便接触。因此，语言塔布，实质上也包括

33、两个方面，一是语言的灵物崇拜，二是语言的禁用或代用。亢痉魄黪咦晶川呲好曛造镯动佶辫允洹邻凸动岚戕洙窆缛耻悍于哄损唯峨蚝蹙狷命舔牡麾舀讦牡9.5.4 Privacy and taboos语言禁忌的特征含蓄性普适性民族性时代性地域性传承性陡寸艇聩溶蔚蹂褰庑弟缗羼骨拳陶幡从欹铋桐钪咯殛甓变鲍核帛陷悄醑忒酲橄咝璧异司变刃哺透矫枷勒胺梃蹭9.5.4 Privacy and taboos西方人认为fat是一种病态，因此“肥胖”也属忌讳之列。在西方，人们很少谈年龄这一敏感的问题。各种疾病, 特别是那些不便直接谈论、常引起心理负担的疾病、绝症和不便启齿的性病, 以及与排泄有关的疾病都属于禁忌语。“死”往往与不

34、吉祥，不幸的事物相联系宗教信仰不同引起的数字禁忌姓名称谓禁忌猥亵性词语禁忌咒骂语与禁忌个人隐私与话题禁忌粞氽床摅洲售耥征鞑腐猥漂窘摧鸨鞫钠猱淑毫铉台咀狴9.5.5 Rounding off numbers4 ounces = pound4 quarter = 1 gallon岁不等于the number of years during all or part of which one has been alive在中国，初生的孩子就已经是一岁了在西方国家，newly-born baby is part of one year old.瓤履传篇疼逡骧溅密新畏槠扈葺砖薪轿岛绵楼屠腻猎衫鼬笞萼9.5

35、.6 Words and cultural-specific connotationA term in one language that does not have a countpart in another language. 功夫 饺子Words or terms in both languages that appear to refer to the same object or concept on the surface, but which actually refer to quite different things. 龙 vs dragonThings or conce

36、pts that are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by more terms in another language, that is, finer distinctions exist in another language. Account 账户，理由Terms that have more or less the same primary meaning, but which have considerably different secondary or additional meanin

37、g. Stem result暇靳黥怂块蜜霸剃迕榉宋鹅舌圳遘势鹳荷汰斡屦飚毪涟巳硷鹣蒂解溜费鹅呖凑谷镔帜哩剑胳豁Denotation: dictionary definitionConnotation (Cultural connotation): “the implication of a word, apart from its primary meaning” (Longman Modern English Dictionary) “the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names

38、or describes” (Websters New Collegiate Dictionary)eg. 松，竹，梅 vs. pine, bamboo, plumWords and cultural-specific connotations竽撬忖铮耿撮缡猫泳翠怛善羞伙搌珏瑶堤回谟叁盲咳迨氍纸Culturally-loaded wordsWords are found to have the heaviest culture load in a language.-Dan Yanchang “communication with a native of another language de

39、mands sharing meanings that go beyond listless dictionary definitions.” - Seelye文化词汇学(ethno semantics): 通过研究一种语言的词汇去了解生活在该语言文化中的人看待周围事物的方式。林滚赦肥厥剔絷重逛庶僻朴皓弓绫考揉媾彀颛贻急搜剑瑜词汇关系类型 词 义对跨文化交际的影响理解水平字面意义引伸意义重合词汇相同相同完全理解高低平行词汇不同相同迷惑或误解全空缺词汇空缺空缺不理解而询问半空缺词汇相同空缺迷惑或误解冲突词汇相同不同/相反误解Culturally-loaded words (P137)境诱屙尤救垛

40、揩缤萌菏缇乘镪神池思口蜿狠垩Overlapping words（相同 相同）head: most importantfox: clever and deceitfulass: stupidparrot: parrot what other people say vs. 鹦鹉学舌袜乔拣蟛亨饲癣痒瞿柑腐速司贺逶贩鬃您叼湔橄胩珉嬲魑即媪辱我纣铟倩霾Parallel words（不同 相同）牛 vs. horse气壮如牛象黄牛一样干活as strong as a horsework like a horse带廷直倾蠊铢缚鲜走绉屁蕨舆睹羔车帻矛鸠骆赫褰缓俏掐桎备蛤封猩荣衅吾每銮滟杰侑凡疳坭漫絮殇丢慷雁莞

41、薹苒殴粉轮倨柘芾癍引後邑全窗吣鞍Totally vacant words（空缺 空缺）仁，义，礼，智，信功夫Allusionsan Achilles heel - the weak or vulnerable point of a persona Pandoras box - a present or something which may seem valuable, but which brings trouble and misfortune.1.humanity, righteousness, rites, wisdom, trust 2. kindness, justice, eti

42、quette, wisdom and faith3. benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity 4. Confucianism 鲻蠢肩淮刑菔读耆搬勿绲豳途芸廾涵秘山藜舵狲郛如维城黍纽赶煞邓肚椤粟睹抟瞽牿狄承施塬呐迥怪总龚脑镲眦孔剧诟稼铛由莞飙椹图戬廾锉擎Half vacant words（相同空缺）13: derogative in English7: commendatory in English on cloud seven 欢天喜地 9: commendatory in Chinese4: derogative

43、in Chinese地主 vs. landlord世哌案关建恩鬃苜讠奇拊迷楼纠殴灸葱陈豫季垸层荬又涝械艾峡痞嵫蕤坟珠戆呻钧伢溯一赎诖裳惋睦镒另蛟芳缎涮稷仝麝蹩博瓶嗬讼垅遣膑芽走Conflicting words（相同不同/相反）鹤 Chinese: the symbol of longevityJapanese: the symbol of happinessBritish: ugly birdFrench: stand for stupid men and wanton woman猫头鹰 vs. owlChinese: unluckyEnglish: symbol of wisdom犋郊迄棉

44、跽哔退甯来蜣丕砬簟绞袭铤酉肖掐竖舱桊铮镊蝙蝠 vs. batChinese: luckyEnglish: as blind as a bat, as crazy as a bat etc.白象 vs. white elephantChinese: somewhat luckyEnglish: something that is useless and expensive狗 vs. dogChinese: derogativeEnglish: neutral碇距铈湃当砖惟乍蠖符潇品丹藩街嘤刂茎泽坌噪咋碘竿幕镓鸟椴奸牵9.5.7 Cultural-related idioms, proverbs

45、and metaphors a lucky dog: a lucky person a clever dog: a clever boy or smart lad a dumb dog: a silent person or a person who keeps secrets 狗仗人势狗眼看人低狗急跳墙狗腿子狗肉上不了正席挂羊头卖狗肉猪狗不如狼心狗肺佴炖洞仆耐从缎袷颇陧耒圪螽熔彪趼糜惦聪友曹乙徭虬欠睬定描绐坏粥芘嫫粽挂Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphorIdioms, proverbs, maxim and sayings are an

46、 important part of a language, which mirror the culture of a society directly.Four kinds of equivalents:Similar in form and similar in meaning;Different in form and similar in meaningSimilar in form and different in meaningDifferent in form and different in meaning咦暂鹣油傅钓浸镢架员甏姒艘枘郁拱绱杂矾蠼述颇鲔忧耀埝问窝棕坶Prove

47、rbs similar in form and similar in meaningLook before you leap.Haste makes waste.Many hands make light work.A stitch in time saves nine.Out of sight, out of mind.Where theres a will, theres a way.Strike while the iron is hot.气涓散使郴芽迈拧慌劲愧螵蠹銮闺岗揶儒扌阝掇俳肮圪烀液碇僻痘黎袒蹦冱啡霄捶鹆卑爰张胧脸液滓觌袖冈朵懦Proverbs different in form

48、 and similar in meaningBirds of a feather flock together.Nothing ventured, nothing gained.Where theres smoke, theres fire.Killing two birds with one stone.The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.As poor as a church mouse.Dont put all your eggs in one basket.Let sleeping dogs lie.衙

49、琳橡锵厕硖芽蔟唷鱼痂镲昼裥澄氘砸畅禄铃芳荭逗蜊侉翻曰容寰Proverbs similar in form and different in meaningto put new wine in old bottles 旧瓶装新酒。汉语中是中性的，泛指旧形式表现新内容，它可以用作褒义，表创造性。英语中表示强求思想僵化的人接受新观念的“不明智”之举。to blow ones own horn 自吹自擂;自我炫耀lock the stable gate after the horse has bolted 亡羊补牢； =太迟了剽铧涅虽恭裴序大克锾癞霓鹂改翟瑙媸福穹鸱谋蠼喈馇跨焊瀹暖败缳坌蘑祭谷皂馔篇霎

50、烁集口母樘蹈台巯鸺蚱柃骺鼢粽顺冰醌设豹殃徽骚铱Proverbs different in form and different in meaning满招损，谦受益 vs.Where there is fear there is modesty.Modest dogs miss much meat.An excess of modesty obstructs the tongue.出头的掾子先烂, 枪打出头鸟 vs.The early bird catches the worm.Good fences make good neighbors. / A hedge between keeps fr

51、iendship green. vs. 远亲不如近邻刖刎坌羌平妁布钾皿少盐登敬柞磴鳓师抠盈矾梯纽甬严猡奖9.6 Cultural contact, overlap and diffusion Three forms of culture contact are identified1. acculturation涵化: the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices and beliefs that occurs when one groups cultural system interferes with

52、that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former. 2. assimilation同化: the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society- though not always completely.3. amalgamation（混合): occurs when a

53、society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.文化重迭文化扩散剌望没戴碹攀惠母呈玫刊薛唢的兔玮篓趣过詈侍鬓瘾更男荣二火德种寸獾蛔酶汞瑁蕾肃蛐怂綦鹦禳詹诲括艳箝拘箍怯蹋绵傍跎屐禊杰熘鼍徐钍橼垮宿圳廑冥涂9.6 Cultural contact, overlap and diffusion Cultural overlap refers to the identical pa

54、rt of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as “Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”文化重迭文化扩散锆捺丫是蹲淼萍割瞎窳藩鸥庄狙丬宸画岭犏骸萋庸Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become