大学英语词汇学英语构词法完整版的知识

1、12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Chapter Two Word Structure and Word Formation Components of Word Structure Types of Morphemes Word Formation 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Components of Word StructureMorpheme: Morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words” (Crystal, 1985). Words are made of morpheme

2、s. Word types: One-morpheme words: log, clerk, soldier, etc. Tow-morpheme words: lovely, inexpensive, kindness, etc. Three-morpheme words: unacceptable, unskillful, etc. More-morpheme words: unskillfully, unimportantly, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Types of MorphemesContent morphemes are the basis of wor

3、ds meanings. Sometimes they can be used independently. For example, “teach” in “teacher” and “hope” in “hopeful” carry the basic meanings of the two words and they can also be used independently. In this case, some scholars call them free morphemes, which imply that they can exist freely and functio

4、n as the basic units of a sentence. They are also considered roots. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Types of MorphemesGrammatical morphemes are the additional meanings or grammatical meanings and are attached to content morphemes, and then form words. In this case, some scholars call them bound morphemes. For ex

5、ample, “un-” in “unkind” and “-full” in “hopeful” are grammatical morphemes and cannot be used independently. In fact, they are affixes. Some grammatical morphemes share lexical meanings, such as un-, in-,-ful, dis-, -able, im-, etc. Some grammatical morphemes do not share any lexical meanings and o

6、nly indicate various grammatical forms, such as s, -ly, -ize, -ion, -ness, -ed, -ing, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Types of MorphemesEnglish stems can be categorized into two types: Derived stems can be divided into several morphemes which are composed of one or two content morphemes and one or two gramm

7、atical morphemes. For example, in “chopper”, “chop-” is a content morpheme; “-er” is a grammatical morpheme while and in “doorman” both “door-” and “man” are content morphemes. And Stephen Ullmann calls them transparent words（显性词）. Non-derived stems refer to independent content morphemes that can no

8、t be further analyzed. For example, “axe, glove, book, etc.” are all non-derived stems. And Stephen Ullmann calls them opaque words (隐性词). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Types of MorphemesMorpheme is a linguistic abstraction and a concept. It is realized in a specific linguistic forms, i.e. morphs（形素）. “They ar

9、e actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.” (Bolinger and Sears, 1981) Morphemes are put in braces（大括号）. Take “big” for example. Its morpheme is big, its sound form is big and its writing form is “big”. In many cases, several forms that are called allomorphs represent one morpheme. Take the plura

10、l morpheme sfor example. It can be represented by the three morphemic forms s, z and iz. The three morphemic forms are considered the allomorphs of s, as in cats, dogs, lies and buses. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation Prevue: The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word for

11、mation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion. According to Pyles and Algeo (1982), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the new words; co

12、nversion brings 26% of the new vocabulary into modern English. The rest of the new words come from shortening including clipping and acronymy, numbering 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending and other means. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word FormationAffixation is generally defined a

13、s the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also called derivation, by which new words are derived from old or base forms. The words created in this way are called derivatives. According to the positions affixes occupy in words, affixation falls

14、into two subcategories: prefixation (prefix) and suffixation (suffix). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation1. Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases. Prefixes do not change the word class of the base but only modify its meaning. 1) Negative prefixesa-: meanin

15、g “not, without, opposite to” as in apolitical, asexual, asocial, etc.dis-: meaning “not, the converse of” as in disobey, discredit, disloyal, disorder, etc. in- (il-, ir-, im-): same meaning as dis- as in inaudible, illiterate, improbable, etc.non-: meaning “not, not having the qualities or charact

16、eristics” as in nonsmoker, etc.un-: the same meaning as dis- as in unwillingly, unbuilt, undemocratic, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) Reversative or private prefixes (逆反前缀) de-: meaning “reversing the action, depriving of”, with nouns as in decentralize, demystify, dehumanize, etc.dis-: me

17、aning “reversing the action”, with verbs as in disallow, dispossess, etc.un-: the meaning as de- with verbs as in unbug, unlock, unwrap; but meaning “depriving of, releasing from” in limited use with nouns to make verbs as in unseat, unhorse, unmask, etc.3) Pejorative prefixes (贬义前缀)12.09.2022丰国欣：英语

18、词汇学Word Formationmal-: meaning “badly, bad” added to verbs, participles, adjectives, and abstract nouns, as in maltreat, malformed, malodorous, malpractice, etc. mis-: meaning “wrongly, astray”, added to verbs, participles and abstract nouns, as in misinterpret, mistrust, misleading, etc.pseudo-: me

19、aning “false, imitation”, added to nouns, adjectives, as in pseudo-scientific, pseudo-classicism, pseudo-democratic, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation4) Prefixes of degree or sizearch-: meaning “supreme, most”, with human nouns, as in archbishop, archduke, arch-enemy, arch-capitalist, etc.co-:

20、meaning “jointly, on equal footing”, used with verbs and nouns, e.g. cohabit, co-direct, co-star, etc.extra-: meaning “very”, productive with adjectives, e.g. extra-large, extra-strong, extra-bright, etc.hyper-: meaning “extreme”, productive with adjectives, sometimes with pejorative (贬义词), e.g. hyp

21、er-cautious, hyperactive, hyper-creative, etc.macro-: meaning “large”, forming technical terms as in macroeconomics, macrostructure, macrocosm, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formationmicro-: meaning “very small”, the opposite of “macro-“, forming technical terms as in microcomputer, microsurgery, mic

22、rofilm, etc. mini-: meaning “little”, used with nouns as in mini-bus, mini-camera, mini-market, mini-tour, etc. out-: meaning “surpassing”, with verbs, nouns and adjectives to form new transitive verbs as in outswim, outlive, outwit, outclass, etc.over-: meaning “excessive”, added to adjectives, ver

23、bs and nouns, as in over-anxious, over-protective, over-react, overestimate, etc.sub-: meaning “secondary, less important”, productive in this sense with nouns to form new nouns, e.g. sub-system, sub-heading, sub-contractor, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formationsuper-: meaning “more than, beyond, v

24、ery special”, productive with adjectives and nouns to form words of the same class as in super-sophisticated, super-modern, super-simplification, supernatural, super-brain, etc.sur-: meaning “over and above” added to nouns e.g. surcharge, surpass, surtax, etc.ultra-: meaning “extreme”, used with adj

25、ectives, e.g. ultra-conservation, ultra-intelligent, ultra-civilized, ultra-feminine, etc.under-: meaning “insufficient, beneath”, productive with verbs, nouns and adjectives, as in underpay, undervalue, undersurface, underground, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation5) Prefixes of orientation and

26、attitude anti-: meaning “against, opposed to”, with nouns and adjectives as in anti-abortion, anti-government, anti-neuclear, etc.contra-: meaning “opposite, contrasting”, as in contradistinction, contrafatural, etc.counter-: meaning “against, in opposition to”, with nouns and verbs, as in counter-e

27、spionage, counter-offer, counter-reform, -: meaning “for, on the side of” with nouns and adjectives to form new adjectives as in pro-democracy, pro-authority, pro-student, etc.Locative prefixes(定位前缀):extra-: meaning “outside”, with adjectives, e.g. extra-curricular, extra-territorial, extra-m

28、arital, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formationfore-: meaning “front part of”, with nouns, verbs, and adjectives, e.g. forearm, forehead, er-: meaning “between, among” with nouns, adjectives and verbs, as in inter-city, intermarriage, interweave, ra-: meaning “within” with nouns and adj

29、ectives to form new adjectives as in intra-class, intra-party, etc.super-: meaning “above” with nouns as in superstructure, superscript, etc.trans-: meaning “across, from one place to another” with nouns, adjectives and verbs, as in transatlantic, transcontinental, trans-world, etc.tele-: meaning “d

30、istant” as in telecommunication, tele-printer, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation6) Prefixes of time and order ex-: meaning “former” with nouns as in ex-professor, ex-lover, ex-husband, etc.fore-: meaning “before” with verbs and nouns as in fore-word, forethought, etc.post-: meaning “after”, wit

31、h nouns and adjectives as in post-election, post-war, post-independent, etc.pre-: meaning “before, in advance”, with nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. pre-trial, pre-retirement, pre-industrial, etc.re-: meaning “again, back” with verbs and nouns as in remarriage, reread, reconsider, etc.12.09.2022丰国

32、欣：英语词汇学Word Formation7) Number prefixesbi-, di-: meaning “two” as in bicycle, bilingual, di-meter, dichotomy, etc.multi-, poly-: meaning “many” as in multi-candidate, multi-purpose, multi-polytechnic, polysyllable, etc.semi-, demi-, hemi-: meaning “half” as in semi-automatic, semi-naked, demigod, de

33、mi-devil, hemisphere, hemi-morphic, etc.tri-: meaning “three” as in triangle, tricolour, tripartite, etc.uni-, mono-: meaning “one” as in unisex, uniform, mono-centric, monorail, etc.12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation8) Conversion prefixes(逆反前缀) a-: added to verbs to produce predicative adjectives as

34、 in asleep, awash, aglow, atremble, etc.be-: with nouns to form transitive verbs as in befriend, bewail; with nouns plus ed to yiel adjectives as in bewildered, bejeweled, beloved, etc.en-, em-: mainly with nouns or adjectives to create transitive verbs, em- occurring to words beginning with p,b,m,

35、as in endanger, ennoble, enrich, embitter, empower, etc. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation9) Miscellaneous prefixes(其它前缀)auto-: meaning “self” with nouns and adjectives as in autobiography, autosuggestion, etc.neo-: meaning “new, revived” with nouns and adjectives as in neo-Liberal, neo-Nazi, neo-ex

36、pressionism, etc.pan-: meaning all, the whole of”, with adjectives as in pan-continental, pan-European, pan-Indian, to-: meaning “first, original” with nouns as in proto-fascist, proto-coalition, proto-horse, etc.vice-: meaning deputy,” freely with nouns as in vice-provost, vice-chairman, vic

37、e-governor. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2. Suffixation: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. Suffixes have only a small semantic role; their primary function is to change the word class with a slight modification of meaning. In this sense, we will discuss suffi

38、xes in terms of their grammatical functions. (1) Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns: This group can be categorized into two types. One is the formation of concrete nouns, and the other is the formation of abstract nouns. As far as the former is concerned, we have the following suffixes: 12.09.2022丰国欣：

39、英语词汇学Word Formation-eer (“skilled in, engaged in”, engineer), -er (“having as dominant characteristic, denizen of”, teacher), -ess (“female”, empress), -ette (“compact”, cigarette), -let (“small, unimportant”, booklet) and -ster (“involved in”, trickster). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word FormationAs for the

40、 latter (abstract nouns), we have: age (“measure of, process or state”, storage), -dom (“state, condition”, martyrdom), -ery, -ry (“condition or behavior associated with”, slavery, devilry; also meaning “place”, bakery), -ful (amount contained in”, armful), -hood (“state, condition”, adulthood), -in

41、g (“the material of”, tubing; also meaning “activity connected with”, farming),-ism (“doctrine of, practice of”, terrorism), -ship (“occupation, position”, governorship; also meaning “skill and ability”, sportsmanship; and meaning “relation”, friendship). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) Deverbal

42、 nouns (由动词转化而来的名词): -ant (“occupationa and participation”, assistant; also meaning “an object or substance”, coolant), -ee (“receiver of the action”, addressee, also meaning “doer of the action”, absentee), -er, -or (doer of the action”, commander; also referring to non-person, cooker), -age (“acti

43、onof, instance of”, marriage), -al (the process or stage of”, survival), -ance (“action, process, state”, performance), 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation-ation, -ition, -sion, -ion (“action, process, state” or “product of, institution produced by”, operation, realization), -ence, (“action, process,

44、state”, persistence), -ing (action of”, wedding; also producing concrete nouns such as building), -ment (“result of”, assessment), -ity (“state or condition”, productivity), -ness (“state or quality”, youthfulness). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation3) Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese (“member of, l

45、anguage of”, Journalese, Americanese), -an, -ian (“citizen and language of”, Australian; also meaning “adherent to, relating to”, Darwinian), -ist (“adherent to beliefs and behaviors”, socialist), -ite (“adherent to, member of”, Thacherite). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation(2) Adjective suffixes: 1

46、) Denominal suffixes: -ed (added to those noun(adj)-plus-noun compounds, blue-eyed), -ful (“full of, providing”, graceful), -ish (“somewhat like, approximately”, monkeyish; also meaning “language and nationality”, Polish; and meaning “somewhat”, thinnish), -less (“without”, nameless), -like (“like”,

47、 dreamlike), -ly (“having the quality of”, soldierly), -y (somewhat like, characterized by”, flowery), -al, -ial, ical (“relating to”, residential, sentimental, philosophical), -esque (“having the properties of”, Chaplinesque),-ic (“resembling, involving, connected with”, poetic), -ous, -eous, -uous

48、 (“having a particular quality”, sensuous, marvelous). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) Deverbal suffixes: We have able, -ible (“possibility”, washable, convertible), -ative, -ive, -sive (talkative, active, decisive). (3) Adverb suffixes: -ly (“in manner, to a degree”, gradually), -ward, -wards (

49、“direction”, homewards, downward), -wise (“in manner”, sleep-walker-wise; also meaning “as far as concerned”, education-wise).(4) Verb suffixes: -ate (“give or make or become”, originate, hyphenate), -en (“make or become”, strengthen), -ify (“make, endow with”, amplify), -ize, -ise (“involving or re

50、lated to”, symbolize; -ise belongs to British use).12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation3. Compounding (or composition) is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a “lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functio

51、ning both grammatically and semantically as a single word” (Quirk et al, 1985). Compounds can be written solid (silkman), hyphenated (honey-bee) and open (tear gas). 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation(1) Characteristics of compoundsPhonological features 1) Compounds word stress usually occurs on the

52、first constituent whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally accented, as illustrated below: Compounds Free phrases a fat head a fat head a hot house a hot house a black horse a black horse a green room a green room 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) But this is not absolute. Sometimes

53、, the primary stress may also fall on the second constituent as in ash-blonde, bottle-green, etc. Semantic features 1) A compound word is a single semantic unit (i.e. onewordness) though it may be written open. A green hand is an “inexperienced person”, not a hand that is green; red meat refers to b

54、eef or mutton rather than any meat that is red in color; hot dog is by no means a dog that is hot but a typical American sausage in between two pieces of bread. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) However, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is, the meaning can be obtained from the separate ele

55、ments of the compounds. Flower pot is just the case. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element will result in the loss of the original identity. Grammatical features 1) Compounds tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence, for example, that of a verb, a noun, or an

56、 adjective. Bad-mouth used as a verb can take the third person singular s and the past tense marker ed, e.g. “He bad-mouthed me.(Boliger and Sears, 1981) 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation2) In adjective-plus-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take the inflectional suffixes. Compare the fol

57、lowing:Compounds Free phrases fine art finer art red tape reddest tape hot line hotter line 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formation(1) Formation of compounds: Compounds can function as any of the world classes, but the most productive compounds are nouns, adjectives and verbs. Noun compounds1) Formation o

58、f noun compounds: n + n: moon walk, end productn + v: toothache, frostbitev + n: crybaby, tell-talea + n: deadline, blueprintn + v-ing: brainwashing, air-conditioning12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word Formationv-ing + n: cleaning lady, wading birdn +v-er: stockholder, crime reporteradv + v: outbreak, downfallv

59、 + adv: sit-in, have-notv-ing + adv: going-over, carryings-onadv + v-ing: up-bring 2) Relationship between constituents of noun compounds: 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word FormationSubject + verbdaybreak The day breaks.glowworm The worm glows.dancing girl The girl dances.Verb + objecthandshake Shake hands.me

60、at delivery Deliver meat.housekeeping Keep puter-designer Design computers. 12.09.2022丰国欣：英语词汇学Word FormationVerb + adverbialhiding-place Hide in a place.city-dweller Dwell in the city.sleeping-walk Walk in ones sleep.day-dreamer Dream during the day.sewing machine Sew with a machine.handwritng Writ