语言学重点总结

语言学重点总结语言学重点总结语言学重点总结语言学重点总结编制仅供参考审核批准生效日期地址：电话：传真:邮编:Chapter6Cognitionisthementalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Thereexistthreeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:theformalapproach,thepsychologicalapproachandtheconceptualapproach.TheFormalapproachbasicallyaddressesthestructuralpatternsexhibitedbytheovertaspectoflinguisticforms,largelyabstractedawayfromorregardedasautonomousfromanyassociatedmeaning.ThePsychologicalapproachlooksatlanguagefromtheperspectiveofrelativelygeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception,memory,andattentiontoreasoning.Theconceptualapproachisconcernedwiththepatternsinwhichandtheprocessesbywhichconceptualcontentisorganizedinlanguage.Structurewillbeusedtoreferbothtopatternsandtoprocess,theconceptualapproachcanmoresimplybesaidtoaddresshowlanguagestructuresconceptualcontent.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Sixaspectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:①Acquisition②Comprehension③Production④Disorders⑤Languageandthought⑥NeurocognitionLanguageacquisition:①Holophrasticstage②Two-wordstage③Stageofthree-wordutterances④FluentgrammaticalconversationstageConnectionisminpsycholinguisticsclaimsthatreadersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.Languagecomprehension:①wordrecognition②comprehensionofsentences③comprehensionoftextCohortmodel:thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Interactivemodelholdsthathigherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Theracemodeldoesnotagree“top-down”effects,ithastworoutesthatraceeachother----apre-lexicalroute,whichcomputesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal,andalexicalroute,inwhichthephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessed.Serialmodelsproposethatthesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Parallelmodelsemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexicalandcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Inresonancemodel,informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Languageproduction:①Accesstowords②Generationofsentences③WrittenlanguageproductionFunctionalplanningprocessassignsgrammaticalfunctionssuchassubject,verbordirectobject.Positionalencodingusestheretrievedlexicon-grammarunitsandthefunctionstheyhavebeenassignedtogeneratesyntacticstructuresthatcapturethedependenciesamongconstituentsandtheirorder.Cognitivelinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.Construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessedandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.①Attention/Salience②Judgment/Comparison③Perspective/SituatednessTrajectorreferstoadynamicfigureandlandmarktothegroundofamovingfigure.Deixisinvolveslinguisticformsthatpointatsomethingfromthespeechsituation.Categorizationistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.Therearethreelevelsincategories:①thebasiclevel②thesuperordinatelevel③thesubordinatelevelThecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Superordinatecategoriesarethemostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.①Acenter-peripheryschema:Itinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore②Acontainmentschema:Itisanimageschemathatinvolvesaphysicalprmetaphoricalboundary,enclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.③Acycleschema:Itinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.④Aforceschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.⑤Alinkschema:Itconsistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andtheboundbetweenthem.⑥Apart-wholeschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.⑦Apathschema:Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.⑧Ascaleschema:Itinvolvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount.⑨Averticalityschema:Itinvolves“up”and“down”relations.Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.Threecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors:ontologicalmetaphors,structuralmetaphors,andorientationalmetaphors.Ontologicalmetaphormeansthathumanexperienceswithphysicalobjecetsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.Structuralmetaphorplaystheimportantrolebecauseitallowsustogobeyondorientationandreferringandgivesusthepossibilitytostructureoneconceptaccordingtoanother.Orientationalmetaphorgivesaconceptaspatialorientation.Theyarecharacterizednotsomuchbystructuringoneconceptintermsofanother,butbyaco-occurrenceinourexperience.Metonymyisdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalprocesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.WehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:①SignICMs②ReferenceICMs③ConceptICMsBlendingtheoryorintegrationtheoryisacognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspaces”areintegratedviaprojectionintoanew,blendedspacewhichhasitsuniquestructure.Chapter7Language,CultureandSocietyContextofsituation:Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalitiesⅰ.Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.ⅱ.Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.Therelevantobjects.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.Ethnographyofcommunication:anauthoritativeresearchframeworkofourtimeinalinguisticstudyofsocialandculturalfactors.Theessentialelementssuggestedbythisframeworkinclude①speechcommunity②situation,eventandact③mnemonicspeakingcomponents.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Followingthisargument,twoimportantpointscouldbecapturedinthistheory.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.Linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,.languagedeterminesthought.Linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.Duringcross-culturalcommunication,therearefivetypesofsub-cultureweshouldbefullyawareof:①ecologicalculture②linguisticculture③religiousculture④materialculture⑤socialcultureLinguisticuniversalityisthesimilaritiespossessedbymostlanguages,insteadoftheirassumeddifferences.Thereareatleastthreeobjectivesforustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:TogetthestudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferencesTogetthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewillToemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompracticesSocialfactorsofinfluencingourlanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext:a)classb)genderc)aged)ethnicidentitye)educationbackgroundf)occupationg)religiousbeliefWomenregister’sfeatures:Womenusemore“fancy”colorwordssuchas“mauve”and“beige”WomenuselesspowerfulcursewordsWomenusemoreintensifierssuchas“terrible”and“awful”WomenusemoretagquestionsWomenusemorestatementquestionslike“Dinnerwillbereadyatseveno’clock”(witharisingintonationattheend)Women’slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectand,hence,morepolitethanmen’s.Linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmenandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.Sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontopotentialsocioculturalfactorsinasocialcontext.Sociolinguisticsofsociety:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.Communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,erningtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.Sociolinguisticshasmadesomeimportantcontributions:SociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteachingIthasalsocontributedtoinnovationsinmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroomIthascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduseIthascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfieldTripartitemodelforsuccessfulcommunication:trytolookatthingsfromotherpersons’pointofviewtrytosensetheirfeelingtoagivenissuetrytounderstandingtheirwayofknowingtheworldGenderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis“genderdifference”Variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.Chapter8LanguageinUsePerformative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.Constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.Locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.Illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.Cooperativeprinciple:QuantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.QualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.RelevanceBerelevant.MannerBeperspicuous.AvoidobscurityofexpressionAvoidambiguitybebrief(avoidprolixity)Beorderly.Entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,“Maryisnotstandingstill”.Ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-inferential.Communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,.Makeyourcontributionsufficient(ofquantity1);Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).R-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).Divisionofpragmaticlabor:theuseofamarkedrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarked(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedas