语言学morphology形态学复习过程

语言学Morphology形态学1.WordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwritten1.1Threesensesof“word”:1)Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.2)Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm:

boy,boyscheck,checks,checked,checking

3)Agrammaticalunit:

sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme1.2Identificationofwords1)Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairman﹡manchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience.Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.disappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.3)Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,e.g.--IsJanecomingtonight?--Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.1.3Classificationofwords1)Variablevs.invariablewords:

Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,mats

Invariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)

Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords:

Grammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns

Lexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)

Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords:Closed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansof;Auxiliaryverbs4)Wordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.

Tenwordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,numeral,interjection,article.Somenew

categories:A.Particles(小品词):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,look

back,turn

in,etc.)B.Auxiliaries(助动词):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,suchasdo,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,etc.C.Pro-form(替代形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名词词组)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:Hehopeshe’llwinandIhopeso

too.Pro-locative(代处所词):Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.D.Determiners(限定词):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allTherearethreesubclassesofdeterminers:1)

Predeterminers:

all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifth2)

Centraldeterminers:

a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their3)Postdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基数词),ordinalnumerals(序数词),generalordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.

Withineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.*theiralltroublealltheirtrouble*fivetheallboysallthefiveboys*allthisboyalltheseboys*allbothgirlsButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.thefirsttwodaysanotherthreeweeksTheformationofwordMorphemes:

Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,mantownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentMorpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1)morphemeboy,desire2)morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3)morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4)morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5)morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6)morphemedis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism7)morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismSememevs.Morpheme,and

Phonemevs.Morpheme1)

Sememevs.morpheme

Sememe(义素)isthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.e.g.Themorpheme–shasonlyonesememe:PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.Therelationshipbetweensememeandmorpheme,fivemappingandnon-mappingoccasions:i.Onemorphemevs.onesememeOnemorphemehasonlyonesememe.e.g.–less,meaningWITHOUT

fearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechlessii.Onemorphemevs.morethanonesememeOnemorphememayhavetwoormorethantwosememes.e.g.a-fivesememes1)away,apart“分离，离开”

,2)aboard,aside

“朝……，向……”3)asleep,awash,ablush“在…，处于…,…的”

4)atypical,asymmetry,abnormal“不，无，非”5)arise,await,arouse,ashamed

表示加强的意思iii.Onesememevs.morethanonemorphemeOnesememeisexpressedwithtwoormorethantwomorphemes.表示no和non意义的语素除了a-之外，还有其他的语素，例如e-,dis-,il-,in-,im-,ir-,ne-,un-,non-等。amoral,disagree,erostrate(无喙的),illiterate,impolite,

neither,untidy,

irregular,

nonsmokeriv.Morphemesthathavenospecificsememe

Therearealsomorphemesthathavenospecificsememe,butmayhelpchangegrammaticalandsemanticcategories.e.g.en-

enjoyv.FunctionchangesinbothsememeandmorphemewithoutmorphemechangeTheremayalsobenomorphemechangeinaword,butboththegrammaticalandthesemanticcategorieswouldchangeaccordingtothecontextitoccurs.e.g.runrunacompany,inashortrunLexeme(词位)Lexeme:theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWrite---write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFat---fat,fatter,fattestAllomorphSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]country---countries[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepphenomenon----phenomenaEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.Likephoneme,morphemeisanabstractunit.Morphemesareputbetweenbraceslike｛｝.Somemorphemicformsrepresentdifferentmorphemesandthushavesememes.2)Morphemevs.PhonemePhoneme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammarThecorrespondencebetweenthetwolevelsoflanguage:

MORPHONOLOGYorMORPHONEMICS---abranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,andcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms.So,itstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.Thereareseveraloccasionsoftherelationship:i.Asinglephonemevs.asinglemorphemeAsinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.e.g.

[ə]aii.Asinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.Morphemesmaybemonophonemic,monosyllabicorpolysyllabic.e.g.[breik]breakiv.MorphemicconditionsMorphemeshapesvaryaccordingtobothphonologicalconditionsandtotheconditionsoftheirown.Therearetwocases:a)Phonologicallyconditioned:Theformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.

injusticeimperfectillogicalirregularinefficientimpenetrableillegalirresponsible

infirmimpossibleilliterateirresolvable

b)Morphologicallyconditioned:Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors.Threerequirements:First,alltheallomorphsshouldhavethesamesememe,e.g.thepluralmorphemeSecond,alltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.Third,allomorphsthathavethesamesememeshouldoccurinparallelformation.ClassificationofmorphemesMorphemescanbeclssifiedbothsemanticallyandstructurally.Semantically,morphemesaregroupedintotwogeneralcategories:root

morphemesandaffixationalmorphemes,orsimplyspeaking,rootsandaffixes.Structurally,theyalsofallintotwoclasses:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.Freemorpheme&boundmorphemeFreemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.correct---incorrect,edit---co-edit,modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesmatches

factories

b)

person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talked

c)case:John/John’s

d)comparison:tall/taller/tallestSomeothertermsAffixesRootStemBaseAffixesAffixesarelexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords,suchasdis-inthewordsdislikeanddishonest,and–fulincarefulandhopeful.Inotherwords,anaffixisusedonlytoaddtooralterthemeaningofaroottowhichitisattached.Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintoinflectionalandderivationalones.Thederivationalaffixescanbedividedintothreesubtypes:prefix(前缀),suffix(后缀),andinfix(中缀).Prefix:in-,para-,mini-，un-,dis-,sub-Suffix:-ise,-tion，-ful,-ly,-ness,-mentInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese,morphology,phonetic,idiomatic,

habitual,raticide,Platonic

RootArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”,“gress”in“progressive”…Arootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.First,freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith);correct(incorrect,correctness).Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.Second,therearerelativelyafewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);

-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain(retain,contain,maintain);-cur(incur,recur,occur);-spect(inspect,respect,expect,suspect,prospect,spectator,spectacles,etc.)Third,afewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.SleepandchildsleptandchildrenStemAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)canbeadded.“Friend”in“friends”,and“friendship”in“friendships”.Thus,astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”in“undesirables”.BaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable,e.g.“undesire”in“undesirable”whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.“desire”in“undesirable”.Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.“desire”in“desired”;“Undesirable”in“undesirables”iseitherastemorabase;“Desirable”in“undesirable”isonlyabase.WordformationWordformation:theprocessofhowwordsareformedTwosub-types:ThecompositionaltypeCOMPOUNDThederivationaltypeDERIVATIONi.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojoinmorethanoneseparatewordtoproduceasingleform

smartphone,cutting-edge,

domainname,

cloakroom,

state-of-the-art,

nursinghome.Incompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentriccompound(向心复合词)theexocentriccompound(离心复合词)Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;e.g.self-control:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchairExocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”,e.g.scarecrow:notakindofcrowbreakneck:notakindofneckCompoundsNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Prepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)SomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Waysofwritingacompound:

Solid:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore,

cupboard.Hyphenated:Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded,over-the-counter,

Open:Somecanbewrittenwithordinaryspacesbetweenthetwoparts:

washingmachine,trafficisland,taxbreak.Freevariation:

businessman,business-man,businessman

winebottle,wine-bottle,winebottleii.

Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.

un+conscious→unconsciousnation+al→nationalnational+ize→nationalizenationalize+ation→nationalizationDerivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.Class-changing:N>V:

lengthen,hospitalize,discardN>A:

friendly,delightful,speechlessV>N:

worker,employee,inhabitantV>A:

acceptable,adorableA>N:

rapidness,rapidityA>V:

deafen,sweetenAdj>Adv:

exactly,quicklyClass-preserving:N>N:

nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletV>V:

disobey,unfastenA>A:

grayish,irrelevantFormsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.

pre-,-ableInEnglishthereisusuallyoneinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.monumental,transcendental,capability,musicality,accountancy,dependency,characterization,joyfulness,silliness,effectively,beautifully,delightfully,AmericanismSomewordscancarrybothprefixesandsuffixes.Bipartisan,abbreviation,bigamist,continuously,contradictionLexicalChange3.1Lexicalchangeproper(特有的词汇变化)1)Invention(新创词语):Facebook,Twitter,drones,

microblog,

e-tailer,smartphone,tsunami

2)

Blending(混成法):acomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowordssmoke+fog>smogmotorist+hotel>motelbreakfast+lunch>brunchmodulator+demodulator>modemsmoking+flirting>smirting边吸烟边跟异性搭讪advertisement+editorial>advertorialeducation+entertainment>edutainmentinformation+commercial>infomercialinformation+entertainment>Infortainment

新闻娱乐化

in+love+individual>inlovidual独立爱人3)Abbreviation(缩写词):Clipping(截断法)Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpart,andcuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly.Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),hippo(potamus),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s,app(lication)program(应用软件)

Fore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aftclippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).

refrigerator--fridgerAlsousedforEnglishnames:Bob—RobertLiz—ElizabethAlsopopularineducation:chem—chemistryexam—examinationgym—gymnasiumlab—laboratorymath—mathematics4)Acronym

(缩写词):madeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword

WB---WorldBank

CIA---CentralIntelligenceAgency

CPI---ConsumerPriceIndex消费者物价指数

UNESCO---UnitednationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization

WTO---WorldTrade/Toilet/TourismOrganizationAP---AdvancedPlacement(classes)先修课程

NEET---NotinEducation,EmploymentorTraining啃老族Thisprocessiswidelyusedinshorteningextremelylongwordsofwordgroupsinscience,technologyandotherspecialfields.Aids:AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeCOBOL:commonbusinessorientedlanguageCD-ROM:compactdiscread-onlymemoryRadar:radiodetectingandrangingSARS:severeacuterespiratorysyndromeWASP:whiteAnglo-SaxonprotestantUAV---unmannedaerialvehicle

无人机5)

Back-formation(逆构词法):anabnormaltypeofwordformationbywhichashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguagegangling→gangleeditor→editpeddler→peddlehawker→hawkenthusiasm→enthuselaser→lasecalmative→calmfreeassociation→free-associate

6)Analogicalcreation(类推构词):Itcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.Fromirregulartoregular:work:wrought>workedbeseech:besought>beseechedslay:slew>slayed?7)Borrowing(借词):Borrowfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,ArabicandotherlanguagesFrench:administration,parliament,public,revenue,tax;court,crime,defendant,judge,jury,justice,pardon,sue;army,enemy,guard,officer,peace,soldier,war;clergy,faith,prayer,religion,sermon,service;coat,costume,dress,fashion,frock,jewel,lace;boil,dinner,feast,fry,roast,supper,toast;bargain,butcher,customer,grocer,money,price,value;art,college,music,poet,prose,story,studyLatin:admit,client,conviction,custody,discuss,equal,index,infinite,intellect,library,medicine,minor,opaque,prosecute,pulpit,scribe,scripture,simile,testimonyGreek:acme,bathos,catastrophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasy,kudos,misanthrope,pathos,pylon,thermSpanishandPortuguese:anchovy,armada,banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cannibal,canoe,canyon,cargo,cask,chilli(orchili),chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,desperado,embargo,guitar,mosquito,negro,port(wine),potato,ranch,renegade,sherry,siesta,tango,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanillaItalian:aria,artichoke,bandit,broccoli,cameo,carnival,casino,concerto,duet,finale,ghetto,graffiti(singulargraffito),incognito,inferno,influenza,larva,libretto,macaroni,maestro,mafia,malaria,paparazzi(singularpaparazzo),piano,pizza,ravioli,regatta,replica,scampi,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,vendetta,vermicelli,volcanoDutch:apartheid,booze,boss,brandy,buoy,coleslaw,commando,cookie,cranberry,cruise,deck,decoy,dock,dollar,dope,easel,excise,freight,furlough,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck,onslaught,pickle,reef,sketch,skipper,slim,smuggle,snap,snip,trek,waffle,wagon,yachtHebrew:amen,babel,cabbala(orcabala,kabbala,kabala),camel,cherub,jubilee,manna,messiah,sabbath,satan,seraph,shibbolethArabic:admiral,albatross,alchemy,alcohol,alcove,algebra,alkali,almanac,amber,assassin,candy,cipher(orcypher),harem,hazard,lemon,magazine,nadir,safari,sherbet,sofa,syrup,zenith,zeroIndian:bungalow,cashmere,chutney,cot,curry,dinghy,ginger,guru,juggernaut,jungle,jute,loot,mango,pariah,polo,punch,pundit,pyjamas(orpajamas),shampoo,swastika,thug,toddy,veranda(orverandah),yogaChinese:chopsuey,chow,chowmein,ginseng,gung-ho,ketchup(orcatchuporcatsup),kungfu,tea,tofu(viaJapanese),typhoonTypesofloanwordsi.Loanwords:

aupair,encore,coupd’etat,kungfu,sputnikii.Loanblend

coconut:coco(Spanish)+nut(English)Chinatown:China(Chinese)+town(English)iii.Loanshift

bridge:meaningasacardgameborrowedfromItalianponteiv.Loantranslation,orcalquefreeverse<verselibre(Latin)blackhumor<humournoir(French)foundobject<objettrouvé(French)(自然艺术品,现成物)3.2

Morpho-syntacticalchange(形态-句法变化)1)Morphologicalchange:Thewordschangetheirforms.Thechangeoftheformsofinflectionalaffixes:a.whenthesubjectisthirdpersonsingularb.theoldformsofthesecondpersonsingularsubject(thou)c.thepluralformsofnounsd.thepossessivecase2)Syntacticalchange:Doublecomparative:moregladder,morelowerNegation:Hesawyounot.Ilovetheenot.Splitinfinitive(分裂不定式):Ihavetriedtoconsciouslystop,worryingaboutit.Postponedprepositions(介词延后):Thatpersonisimpossibletoworkwith.Objectivecaseofrelativepronoun(相关代词的宾格):Thegirlwho(m)hetalkedaboutisaviolinist.Fusion/blending:equallygood+justasgood>equallyasgoodIt’snousegettingtherebeforenine+There’snouseingettingtherebeforenine>There’snousegettingtherebeforenine.Objectivecaseofrelativepronoun(相关代词的宾格):Thegirlwho(m)hetalkedaboutisaviolinist.Fusion/blending:equallygood+justasgood>equallyasgoodIt’snousegettingtherebeforenine+There’snouseingettingtherebeforenine>There’snousegettingtherebeforenine.3.3Semanticchange

1)Broadening(词义扩大):Aprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsoriginallyspecificsensetoarelativelygeneraloneholiday:holyday(religion)>dayforrestbird:youngbird>anykindtask:tax>work

2)

Narrowing

(缩小):Theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.hound:dog>aspecialkindofdoggirl:youngperson>youngwomandeer:beast>aspecialkindofanimal3)Meaningshift(词义转移):Itsdeparturefromitsoriginaldomainasaresultofitsmetaphoricalusage.bead:prayer>theprayerbead>small,ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood4)Classshift(词性变化):shiftthewordclasszero-derivation(零派生）conversion(转换)engineer:persontrainedinengineering>toactasanengineer(N>V)stump:thepartofatreetrunkleftprotrudingfromtheground>tochallenge(N>V)hog:apig>totakeandkeep(allofsomething)foroneself(N>V)拱起

5)Folketymology(俗词源):Itreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefa