徐托福tpo1-33阅读原文13翻译

TypesofSocialLifecesusinacomplexwebofrelationshipswithotherpeople.Ourhumannessarisesoutoftheserelationshipsinthecourseofsocialin ction.Moreover,ourhumannessmustbesustainedthroughsocialin ction—andfairlyconstantlyso.Whenanassociationcontinueslongenoughfortwopeopleto elinkedtogetherbyarelativelystablesetofexpectations,itiscalledarelationship.Peopleareboundwithinrelationshipsbytwotypesofbonds:expressivetiesandinstrumentalties.Expressivetiesaresociallinksformedwhenweemotionallyinvestourselvesinandcommitourselvestootherpeople.Throughassociationwithpeoplewhoaremeaningfultous,weachieveasenseofsecurity,love,acceptance,companionship,and alworth.Instrumentaltiesaresociallinksformedwhenwecooperatewithotherpeopletoachievesomegoal.Occasionally,thismaymeanworkingwithinsteadofagainstcompetitors.Moreoften,wesimplycooperatewithotherstoreachsomeendwithoutendowingtherelationshipwithanylargerSociologistshavebuiltonthedistinctionbetweenexpressiveandinstrumentaltiestodistinguishbetweentwotypesofgroups:primaryandsecondary.Aprimarygroupinvolvestwoormorepeoplewhoenjoyadirect,intimate,cohesiverelationshipwithoneanother.Expressivetiespredominateinprimarygroups;weviewthepeopleasendsinthemselvesandvaluableintheirownright.Asecondarygroupentailstwoormorepeoplewhoareinvolvedinanim alrelationshipandhavecometogetherforaspecific,practicalpurpose.Instrumentaltiespredominateinsecondarygroups;weperceivepeopleasmeanstoendsratherthanasendsintheirownright.Sometimesprimarygrouprelationshipsevolveoutofsecondarygrouprelationships.Thishappensinmanyworksettings.Peopleonthejoboftendevelopcloserelationshipswithcoworkersastheycometosharegripes,jokes,gossip,andAnumberofconditionsenhancethelikelihoodthatprimarygroupswillarise.First,groupsizeisimportant.Wefinditdifficulttogettoknowpeopleallywhentheyaremillingaboutanddispersedinlargegroups.Insmallgroupswehaveabetterchancetoinitiatecontactandestablishrapportwiththem.Second,face-to-facecontactallowsustosizeupothers.Seeingandtalkingwithoneanotherinclosephysicalproximitymakespossibleasubtleexchangeofideasandfeelings.Andthird,theprobabilitythatwewilldevelopprimarygroupbondsincreasesaswehavefrequentandcontinuouscontact.OurtieswithpeopleoftendeepenasweinctwiththemacrosstimeandgraduallyevolveinterlockinghabitsandPrimarygroupsarefundamentaltousandtosociety.First,primarygroupsaretothesocializationprocess.Withinthem,infantsandchildrenareintroducedtothewaysoftheirsociety.Suchgroupsarethebreedinggroundsinwhichweacquirethenormsandvaluesthatequipusforsociallife.Sociologistsviewprimarygroupsasbridgesbetweenindividualsandthelargersocietybecausetheytransmit,mediate,andinterpretasociety'sculturalpatternsandprovidethesenseofonenesssocriticalforsocialsolidarity.Second,primarygroupsarefundamentalbecausetheyprovidethesettingsinwhichwemeetmostofouralneeds.Withinthem,weexperiencecompanionship,love,security,andanoverallsenseofwell-being.Notsurprisingly,sociologistsfindthatthestrengthofagroup'sprimarytieshasimplicationsforthegroup'sfunctioning.Forexample,thestrongertheprimarygrouptiesofasportsteamyingtogether,thebettertheirrecordis.Third,primarygroupsarefundamentalbecausetheyserveaspowerfulinstrumentsforsocialcontrol.Theirmemberscommandanddispensemanyoftherewardsthataresovitaltousandthatmakeourlivesseemworthwhile.Shouldtheuseofrewardsfail,memberscanfrequentlywinbyrejectingorthreateningtoostracizethosewhodeviatefromtheprimarygroup'snorms.Forinstance,somesocialgroupsemployshunning(acanremaininthecommunity,butothersareforbiddento ctwiththe )asadevicetobringintolineindividualswhosebehaviorgoesthatallowedbytheparticulargroup.Evenmoreimportant,primarygroupsdefinesocialrealityforusbystructuringourexperiences.Byprovidinguswithdefinitionsofsituations,theyelicitfromourbehaviorthatconformstogroup-devisedmeanings.Primarygroups,then,servebothascarriersofsocialnormsandasen rsofthem.

社会群组的类型意味着变相与竞争者一起共事。的时候我们没有发展出任何更有意义的关系而只是简单的与其他人合作并终点。续的交流关。我们与其他人的纽带经常随着我们与其他人的互动而加深并演化为的相关联的习惯和。第三点，主要群组之所以是基础还因为他们提供强有力的社会工具。这之中Survivalandsuccessfulreproductionusuallyrequiretheactivitiesofanimalstobecoordinatedwithpredictableeventsaroundthem.Consequently,thetimingandrhythmsofbiologicalfunctionsmustcloselymatchperiodiceventslikethesolarday,thetides,thelunarcycle,andtheseasons.Therelationsbetweenanimalactivityandtheseperiods,particularlyforthedailyrhythms,havebeenofsuchinterestandimportancethatahugeamountofworkhasbeendoneonthemandthespecialresearchfieldofchronobiologyhasemerged.Normally,theconstantlychanginglevelsofananimal'sactivity—slee,feeding,moving,reproducing,metabolizing,andproducingenzymesandhormones,forexample—arewellcoordinatedwithenvironmentalrhythms,butthekeyquestioniswhethertheanimal'sscheduleisdrivenbyexternalcues,suchassunriseorsunset,orisinsteaddependentsomehowoninternaltimersthatthemselvesgeneratetheobservedbiologicalrhythms.Almostuniversally,biologistsaccepttheideathatalleukaryotes(acategorythatincludesmostorganismsexceptbacteriaandcertainalgae)haveinternalclocks.Byisolatingorganismscompleyfromexternalperiodiccues,biologistslearnedthatorganismshaveinternalclocks.Forinstance,apparentlynormaldailyperiodsofbiologicalactivityweremaintainedforaboutaweekbythefungusNeurosporawhenitwasintentionallyisolatedfromallgeophysicaltimingcueswhileorbitinginaspaceshuttle.Thecontinuationofbiologicalrhythmsinanorganismwithoutexternalcuesatteststoitshavinganinternalclock.Whencrayfisharekeptcontinuouslyinthedark,evenforfourtofivemonths,theircompoundeyescontinuetoadjustonadailyschedulefordaytimeandnighttimevision.Horseshoecrabskeptinthedarkcontinuouslyforayearwerefoundtomaintainapersistentrhythmofbrainactivitythatsimilarlyadaptstheireyesonadailyscheduleforbrightorforweaklight.Likealmostalldailycyclesofanimalsdeprivedofenvironmentalcues,thosemeasuredforthehorseshoecrabsintheseconditionswerenotexactly24hours.Sucharhythmwhoseperiodisapproximay—butnotexactly—adayiscalledcircadian.Fordifferentindividualhorseshoecrabs,thecircadianperiodrangedfrom22.2to25.5hours.Aparticularanimaltypicallymaintainsitsowncharacteristiccycledurationwithgreatprecisionformanydays.Indeed,stabilityofthebiologicalclock'speriodisoneofitsmajorfeatures,evenwhentheorganism'senvironmentissubjectedtoconsiderablechangesinfactors,suchastemperature,thatwouldbeexpectedtoaffectbiologicalactivitystrongly.Furtherevidenceforpersistentinternalrhythmsappearswhentheusualexternalcyclesareshifted—eitherexperimentallyorbyrapideast-westtravelovergreatdistances.Typically,theanimal'sdailyinternallygeneratedcycleofactivitycontinueswithoutchange.Asaresult,itsactivitiesareshiftedrelativetotheexternalcycleofthenewenvironment.Thedisorientingeffectsofthismismatchbetweenexternaltimecuesandinternalschedulesmaypersist,likeourjetlag,forseveraldaysorweeksuntilcertaincuessuchasthedaylight/darknesscycleresettheorganism'sclocktosynchronizewiththedailyrhythmofthenewenvironment.Animalsneednaturalperiodicsignalslikesunrisetomaintainacyclewhoseperiodisprecisely24hours.Suchanexternalcuenotonlycoordinatesananimal'sdailyrhythmswithparticularfeaturesofthelocalsolardaybutalso—becauseitnormallydoessodayafterday-seemstokeeptheinternalclock'speriodclosetothatofEarth'srotation.Yetdespitethissynchronizationoftheperiodoftheinternalcycle,theanimal'stimeritselfcontinuestohaveitsowngeneticallybuilt-inperiodcloseto,butdifferentfrom,24hours.Withouttheexternalcue,thedifferenceaccumulatesandsotheinternallyregulatedactivitiesofthebiologicaldaydriftcontinuously,likethetides,inrelationtothesolarday.Thisdrifthasbeenstudiedextensivelyinmanyanimalsandinbiologicalactivitiesrangingfromthehatchingoffruitflyeggstowheelrunningbysquirrels.Lighthasapredominatinginfluenceinsettingtheclock.Evenafifteen-minuteburstoflightinotherwisesustaineddarknesscanresetananimal'scircadianrhythm.Normally,internalrhythmsarekeptinstepbyregularenvironmentalcycles.Forinstance,ifahomingpigeonistonavigatewithitsSuncompass,itsclockmustbeproperlysetbycuesprovidedbythedaylight/darkness

生物钟节奏。不同的马蹄蟹，生理节奏在也22.2小时到25.5小时之间。一种特定24在的调节机制作用下的生物活动保持这继续，比如潮汐，就与有关系。这种光在调节生物钟里占主导位置。即使是15分钟的强光在中发生也可以改变 Inthestudyofperceptualabilitiesofinfants,anumberoftechniquesareusedtodetermineinfants'responsestovariousstimuli.Becausetheycannotverbalizeorfilloutquestionnaires,indirecttechniquesofnaturalisticobservationareusedastheprimarymeansofdeterminingwhatinfantscansee,hear,feel,andsoforth.Eachofthesemethodscomparesaninfant'sstatepriortotheintroductionofastimuluswithitsstateduringorimmediayfollowingthestimulus.Thedifferencebetweenthetwomeasuresprovidestheresearcherwithanindicationofthelevelanddurationoftheresponsetothestimulus.Forexample,ifauniformlymovingpatternofsomesortispassedacrossthevisualfieldofaneonate(newborn),repetitivefollowingmovementsoftheeyeoccur.Theoccurrenceoftheseeyemovementsprovidesevidencethatthemovingpatternisperceivedatsomelevelbythenewborn.Similarly,changesintheinfant'sgenerallevelofmotoractivity—turningthehead,blinkingtheeyes,crying,andsoforth—havebeenusedbyresearchersasvisualindicatorsoftheinfant'sperceptualabilities.Suchtechniques,however,havelimitations.First,theobservationmaybeunreliableinthattwoormoreobserversmaynotagreethattheparticularresponseoccurred,ortowhatdegreeitoccurred.Second,responsesaredifficulttofy.Oftentherapidanddiffusemovementsoftheinfantmakeitdifficulttogetanaccuraterecordofthenumberofresponses.Thethird,andmostpotent,limitationisthatitisnotpossibletobecertainthattheinfant'sresponsewasduetothestimuluspresentedortoachangefromnostimulustoastimulus.Theinfantmayberespondingtoaspectsofthestimulusdifferentthanthoseidentifiedbytheinvestigator.Therefore,whenobservationalassessmentisusedasatechniqueforstudyinginfantperceptualabilities,caremustbetakennottoovergeneralizefromthedataortorelyononeortwostudiesasconclusiveevidenceofaparticularperceptualabilityoftheinfant.Observationalassessmenttechniqueshave emuchmoresophisticated,reducingthelimitationsjustpresented.Filmysisoftheinfant'sresponses,heartandrespirationratemonitors,andnonnutritivesuckingdevicesareusedaseffectivetoolsinunderstandinginfantperception.Filmysispermitsresearcherstocarefullystudytheinfant'sresponsesoverandoverandinslowmotion.Precisemeasurementscanbemadeofthelengthandfrequencyoftheinfant'sattentionbetweentwostimuli.Heartandrespirationmonitorsprovidetheinvestigatorwiththenumberofheartbeatsorbreathstakenwhenanewstimulusispresented.Numericalincreasesareusedasfiableindicatorsofheightenedinterestinthenewstimulus.Increasesinnonnutritivesuckingwerefirstusedasanassessmentmeasurebyresearchersin1969.Theydevisedanapparatusthatconnectedababy'spacifiertoacountingdevice.Asstimuliwerepresented,changesintheinfant'ssuckingbehaviorwererecorded.Increasesinthenumberofsuckswereusedasanindicatoroftheinfant'sattentiontoorpreferenceforagivenvisualdisTwoadditionaltechniquesofstudyinginfantperceptionhavecomeintovogue.Thefir