LectureArgumentation英语专业写作教学课件完美版资料

Lecture2:ArgumentationDefinitionArgumentationisthetypeofwritinginwhichwriterstrytoencouragereaderstoaccepttheirpointofviewonacontroversialissue.Toarguemeanstoprovidereasonsfororagainstsomething,especiallyclearlyandinproperorder.Whenyouarefororagainstsomethingandintendtomakeyourpointofviewunderstoodandaccepted,youwriteargumentativeessays.Apieceofargumentativewrittenworkexpressesthewriter’sownideaonasubjectinsteadofmerelyassemblingfacts.Expositionvs.Argumentation

Thepurposeofexpositionistoinform;thepurposeofargumentation,ontheotherhand,istoconvince.Whileanexpositorypapermakesknownsomethingandexplainsittomakethereaderunderstand,anargumentativeessaytriestomakethereaderagreewithitspointofviewandsupportit,topersuadehimtochangehismindorbehavior,andtoapproveapolicyoracourseofactionthatitproposes.Speechesonpolices,editorialsofnewspapers,articlesonpoliticalortheoreticalquestions,andvariousproposalsareoftenargumentative.Argumentationfrequentlymakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting—description,narration,andaboveallexposition,forargumentationandexpositionareverycloselyrelated—argumentationisactuallyexpositionwiththeadditionalpurposeofconvincingorpersuading.Whatitinvolves

Whatitaimsat

Exposition

1.Presentingapointofview2.Explaining,clarifying,andillustratingthepointofviewGettingreaderstounderstandthepointofviewArgumentation1.Assumingcontroversy2.Presentingapointofview3.Explaining,clarifying,andillustratingthepointofview4.Supplyingproofforthepointofview5.Refutingopposingviewpoints

1.Convincingreadersthatthepointofviewissound2.Encouragingreaderstoacceptthepointofview,and/or3.Encouragingreaderstotakeaction

Whattypeofwritingshouldwewritejudgingfromthefollowingtitles?Examination–HarmfulorUseful?AMyViewsonExaminationsEWhichWeighsMore–SchoolBrandorMajor?AWhyICametoCollegeEShouldClassAttendanceBeRequired?ALaid-offWorkersHavetoFaceRealityEInternet–aCoinofTwoSidesEInternet–theIndispensableofOurLifeEShouldEuthanasiaBeLegalized?A

Howtowriteagoodargumentation

Althoughtheycantakedifferentshapes,argumentativeessayshavecertainbasicfeaturesincommon.Ifyouwishtowriteagoodargumentativeessay,youshouldtryyourbesttomeetthefollowingrequirements:(1)Adebatablepoint

Inorganizinganargumentwell,youshouldfirstgiveawell-definedtheme,orclearlystateyourpointofviewoftheissueintheopeningparagraph.Itisimperativethatthepapershouldhaveadebatablepoint,thatis,somethingwhichcanbeviewedfrommorethanoneangleandisthereforeopentodispute.Generallyspeaking,thefollowingarenotgoodthemes.1)Merestatementoffacts.“Chinesedoctorsuseacupunctureanesthesiatoperformcertainoperations”isafactthatcannotbedebated.Butifitischangedinto“Acupunctureanesthesiashouldreplaceconventionalanesthesiainalloperations”,itbecomesdebatable.2)Statementsofpersonalpreference“BaJinismyfavoriteauthor”expressespersonalpreferencewhichdoesnotleadtodispute.Butastatementlike“BaJinisthegreatestChinesewriterofthe20thcentury”isdisputableandsufficientevidenceshouldbeprovided.3)ViewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverifiedItisuniversallyknownthat“noisepollutionisharmfultopeople’shealth”,butitisnotgenerallyacceptedthat“noisepollutionisthemostharmfulofallenvironmentalpollution”.Theformerviewpointcanbeproved,butthelaterisarguable.(2)Sufficientevidence

Inthebodyoftheessay,youmustprovidesufficientevidence,includingreasons,facts,statistics,opinionsofreliableauthorities,etc.tosupportorproveyourpointofvieworpropositionthatisstatedorhintedintheopeningparagraph.Sincethepointofyourpaperisnotafact,astatementofpersonaltaste,oraviewpointuniversallyaccepted,youwillhavetoprovidesufficientevidencetoconvincethereader.Sufficientevidenceincludescommonknowledge;specificexamples;hard,notsoft,evidence,orfacts,notopinions,unlesstheopinionsareexpertandauthoritative;statistics;andquotationsfromauthorities.Validevidenceisthatwhichisclearlyanddirectlyconnectedwiththepointtobeproved.(3)GoodlogicItisobviousthatgoodlogicisevenmoreimportanttoargumentationthantoanyothertypesofwriting.Allthefactsandreasonsthataregivenasevidenceshouldbelogicallyconnectedwiththeconclusionandwitheachother.Anyfallacyinlogicorwrongstepinreasoningwouldleavethereaderindoubtaboutthewholeargument.Therearegenerallytwowaysofreasoning:1)Inductivereasoning归纳Inductivereasoningisthemorecommonway.Whenyouuseinductive,youstartwithfactsandproceedfromfactstoageneralconclusion.Inotherwords,youmovefromspecificexamplestoageneralstatement.2)Deductivereasoning演绎Theprocessisjusttheoppositeofinductivereasoning—itmovesfromageneralstatementtoaspecificconclusion.Itworksonthemodelofsyllogism（三段论法）—athree-partargumentinwhichtherearetwostatements,knownasthemajorpremiseandtheminorpremise,andaconclusion.Hereisanexampleofasyllogism:Allhumanbeingsmakemistakes.Xisahumanbeing.Therefore,Xmakesmistakes.Fromtheaboveexamplewecanseethatthemajorpremisemustbeanacceptedgeneralization,andtheminor,afactualexampleofthatgeneralization.IfAandBaretrue,Ctheconclusionisboundtobetrue.Youmustbeverycarefulaboutyourpremises,especiallyyourmajorpremise.Suchstatementsas“allstudentslovetostudy”and“womenaremoreimaginativethanmen”arenotgenerallyaccepted,andthereforecannotbeusedasmajorpremises.(4)Clearlogic

Atypicalargumentativeessayconsistsofthreeparts:anintroductionwhichidentifiestheissuetobediscussedandexplainstheimportanceofsuchadiscussion;abodywhichpresentstheevidence;andaconclusioninwhichtheproposition,ifitisstatedatthebeginning,isreaffirmed.Inthebody,itisadvisablethatyoudevotethefirstoneortwoparagraphstoaconsiderationoftheothersideofthecasebeforestatingandamplifyingyourownviews.Thenineachparagraphthatfollows,youshouldarrangeA.fromtheleasttothemostimportant,B.fromthemostfamiliartotheleastfamiliarC.fromtheeasiesttoacceptorcomprehendtothemostdifficult.(5)Gooduseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting—description,narration,andespeciallythevariousmethodsofexposition.(6)Anhonestandfriendlyattitude

Toargueisnottoquarrel.Theforceofanargumentdoesnotcomefromabuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,orfierceattacks,butfromsolidevidence,logicalreasoning,andcarefulanalysis.Adomineeringorhostiletonecouldonlyraisedoubtsaboutyourgoodfaithandimpairthecredibilityofyourargument,whereasanhonestandfriendlyattitudewillhelpwinthetrustofyourreaders.Takecarethatyouneitheroverstateorunderstate,andavoidoveruseofsuchwordsandphrasesas“perhaps”,“maybe”,“sometimes”,“mostoften”,“nearlyalways,”“Ithink“,“inmyopinion”,whichinvariablyweakentheforceofyourargument.Essentialelementsofargumentation

Theissue/theclaim/thesupport/therefutation

Theissue---acontroversy,aproblem,oranideaaboutwhichpeopledisagreeandholddifferentpointsofview.Ex.Identifyandcheckthestatementsthatcanbedevelopedasanargumentandexplainwhytheotherscan’t.——TheUnitedNationsisaninternationalorganizationofcountriescreatedtopromoteworldpeaceandcooperation.——Thegenerationgapbetweenparentsandtheirteenagechildreniswidening.——Smokingshouldbebannedinworkplace.——Thegreenhouseeffecthassignificantlyaffectedtheenvironment.——“Home”meansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.——Moreeffectivemeasuresshouldbeadoptedtocrackdownon（处罚、制裁）cybercrime.——Thereshouldbestricterlawsagainstfishingincitycanals.——NelsonMandelaisauniversallyrespectedoldman.——Peoplehavedifferentreasonsforwantingtochangejobs.——Competentteachersshouldn’tbeforcedtoretireatage60.——Abetterwayofassessingstudents’progressshouldbeadopted.——ParisandLondonbothputinbidsforthe2012Olympics.Theclaim---thepointofviewthewritertriestoproveabouttheissue,usuallythewriter’sviewontheissue.Tipsonhowtomakeaclaim:Besurethattheclaim–whatyouaretryingtoprove–isclearlystated,preferablyatthebeginningofyourpaper.Whennecessary,definetermsthatmaycauseconfusionbeforemakingaclaim.Qualifyaclaimoffact,whennecessary,withawordsuchasgenerally,usually,probably,orasarule,thatlimitstheclaim,e.g.Generally,collegegraduatesearnmorethanhighschoolgraduateswhodidn’tgotocollege.Inthecaseofclaimsofvalue,adheretothevaluesyoudefend.Stateaclaimofpolicywithawordsuchasshouldormust.Thesupport---ideasandinformationintendedtoconvincereadersthattheclaimissoundorbelievable.Thethreecommontypesofsupportarereasons,evidenceandemotionalappeal.Typesofsupport:Reasons:generalstatementsthatbackupaclaim,explainingwhyaviewpointonanissueisreasonableorcorrect.Reasonsshouldbelogical(i.e.makingsense)reasonable(i.e.fair)Evidence:whatwritersusetosupportorverifyreasons.Evidenceshouldberelevant(i.e.appropriatetothecaseinhand)sufficient(i.e.asmuchasyouneedtoverifyareason)Emotionalappeal:whichevoketheneedsorvaluesthatreaderscaredeeplyabout.appealingtoneedsappealingtovaluesTypesofevidenceexemplified:Claim:Readingaloudtopreschoolandkindergartenchildrenimprovestheirchancesofsuccessinschool.Facts(i.e.astatementthatistrueorcanbeverified),e.g.First-gradechildrenwhowerereadtoaspreschoolerslearntoreadearlierthanchildrenwhowerenotreadto.Statistics(i.e.factsinfigures),e.g.A1998studydemonstratedthatreadingaloudtochildrenproduceda16percentimprovementinthechildren’sabilitytorecognizewordsusedinastory.Expertopinion,e.g.Dr.MariaMorealle,achildpsychologist,urgesparentstoreadtwoorthreechildren’sstoriestotheirchildrendaily.Examples,e.g.Storiesaboutunfamiliarplacesoractivitiesincreaseachild’svocabulary.Forexample,readingastoryaboutafarmtoachildwholivesinacityapartmentwillacquaintthechildwithsuchnewtermsasbarn,plow,andtractor.Observationfrompersonalexperience,e.g.WhenIreadtomythree-year-oldson,Inoticethathetriestorepeatwords.Therefutation---whichrecognizes/acknowledgesandarguesagainstopposingviewpoints.Guidingprinciple:findingaweaknessintheopponent’sargument.bycastingdoubtontheopponent’sreasons;byquestioningtheaccuracy,relevancy,andsufficiencyoftheopponent’sevidence(facts,examples,statisticsandexperttestimony)Structureoftherefutation:Brieflyacknowledgetheopposingviews.Thenrespondandpointoutwhyit/theyis/arewrong.Overallstructureofanargumentation

Introduction:Issue;Backgroundinformation;DefinitionoftermsClaim:ThesisstatementBody:reasonsandevidence;Emotionalappeals;RefutationConclusion:Restatementofclaim;Finalappeal;UrgetotakeactionMethodsofDevelopment

Anargumentativeessayalwaysmakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting,especiallythevariousmethodofexposition.Inanessay,thewriteroftenusessomemethodstoaddtheforceofpersuasion.Thefollowingaresomecommonmethodsusedinargumentation:Exemplification举例说明DeductiveMethod推理法InductiveMethod归纳法CauseandEffect因果Analogy类推，类比ComparisonandContrastQuotationReductiontoAbsurditySampleEssays

Sample1.OnStudentLovers’LivingTogether

Accordingtoofficialstatistics,thenumberofcollegestudentloverslivingtogetheroffcampusinBeijinghasincreasedbyfourtimesbetween1997and2001.ThisisundeniablytrueofmanyotherplacesinChina.Althoughmanystudentsdonotstronglyobjecttoit,Idon’tthinkitisadvisableforcollegestudentloverstolivetogetherawayfromcampus.Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanhelpthemstudybetter,foritcanhelpthemgetridoftheinterferenceofotherstudents.Thisisactuallynottrue.Whenlivingawayfromcampus,theloverswillalwaysthinkofeachotherratherthantheteachers’assignment,andotherunavoidablefamilychoressuchascookingandwashingwillalsotakemuchtimeawaythatmighthavebeenspentonstudy./Besides,manycoursesnowrequiregroupworkorcooperation.Iftheystayawayfromotherclassmates,howcantheystudythesecourseswell?Someloverssaythatlivingtogethercanrelievetheirlonelinessandpressure,butitisnotreallythebestchoice.

Ontheonehand,therealreasonfortheirlonelinessisthattheyarenotfocusingtheirmindonstudy.Study,themostimportanttaskforuniversitystudents,canprovetobefascinatingifyoureallyfocusonit./Ontheotherhand,eveniftheirlonelinessisreal,therearemanybetterwaystodealwithit./Forinstance,theycanfindfriendstotakepartinsportsorotherentertainingactivities.Bystayingawayfromotherclassmates,livingtogethercanbeasourceofratherthansolutiontoloneliness.Otherloversarguethattheymeantogetmarriedaftergraduation,andthisexperiencecanhelpthemtesteachothertoseeiftheyaresuitableformarriedlife.Butthismentalitydoesnotholdwater.Thetwoloversmayreallyloveeachother,butlivingtogethercanactuallyspoilagoodrelationship,becauseitentersintoweaknessratherstrength,doubtratherthanconviction./Afollow-upstudyshowsthatfewcoupleslivingtogetherreallyendinmarriage.Inaword,thosestudentloverscannotfindenoughreasonstojustifytheirchoice.Whattheycanofferallrepresentself-deceptionormisconception（错误想法）.Althoughuniversitiesarenotallowedtoforbidstudentstoliveoffcampus,theycanstillfindmoreeffectivewaystoconvincethislostgroupofdisadvantages,andimproveteachingandafter-classactivitiestoattractthembacktocampus.Questions:1.What’sthewriter’sargument?2.Howdoesthewriterputforwardhisclaim?3.Inwhichpartoftheargumentdoesthewriteridentifytheopposingview?4.Howdoesthewriterrefutetheopposingpointofview?5.Howdoesthecompositionend?Sample2:ShouldUniversityStudentsGoinforBusiness?

Therearetwooppositeviewsonuniversitystudents’tryingtheirhandsatbusiness.Oneisthatdoingbusinesshelpstoadaptbettertothesocietyaftergraduation,whiletheothersaysitmightoccupytoomuchofthestudents’timeandenergywhichinturnhasanegativeimpactontheiracademicstudy.Inmyopinion,aslongaswecansuccessfullystrikeabalancebetweendoingbusinessandstudying,theadvantagesoftheformeraremoreobvious.First,itletsusputwhatwehavelearnedtopractice.Infact,doingbusinessisnotthateasyaswehaveexpected.Itrequiresgoodcommunicationskill,negotiationknacks(诀窍）,presentationcapabilities,andsoon.Althoughwecanlearnallthesefromtextbooks,theyaretheoreticalonly.Andtherealsituationsarefarmorecomplicated.Aslongasweputtheoriesintopractice,wecangrasptheiressencebetter.Thatisalsowhyatpresent,moreuniversitiesemphasizingonthechancetodobusinessourselves,whyshouldwenothaveatry?Second,itletsusadaptbettertothesociety.Itisknownthatitneedstimetoconducttherole-shiftingfromastudenttoaprofession.Theearlierweareabletoadapttothebusinessenvironmentofthesociety,thebetteritisforourfuturecareerdevelopment.Atthesametime,doingbusinessisbeneficialwhenwearetryingtofindarightpositioninthesocietyforourselves.Lastbutnotleast,itinvolvesotheraspectstoo.Ifwecanmakebestofourleisuretimetodosomethingweareinterestedin,likebusiness,onthebasisoftheguaranteethatacademicstudyintheuniversitieswillnotbeinfluenced,itsurelymakesourcampuslifemorecolorfulandmeaningful.Undoubtedly,doingbusinessisfullofrisk.Tocopeitwellnotonlyneedsbraveryandcreativitybutalsorequiresknowledgeandwisdom.So,throughdoingbusiness,weuniversitystudentsaremorelikelytobeahigh-caliber（才干）intellectualandmakeagreatercontributiontosocietyinfuture.Questions:1.What’sthewriter’sclaim?2.Howdoesthewriterdeveloptheclaim?3.Doyouthinkthewriter’swayofdevelopingtheclaimeffective?Why?4.Summarizethemainreasonsforthewriter’sclaim.

Howtowriteanargumentation

Whatdowedointheintroduction?

Arousereaders’interestandmakethemgoonreading.Providenecessarybackground.Introducethethesisstatement,orthemainpoint,oftheessay.Implythestructureofthebodyparagraph.

Howtodointheconclusion?

Makeasummaryofthemainpointsorrestatementsofthesisindifferentwords.Makeyourfinalcommentonthesubject,basedontheinformationyouhaveprovided.Commonfallacies（谬论）

Inwritinganargumentation,thewritershoulduseobjective,logicalreasoning,facts,andhardevidencetodemonstratethesoundnessofaposition.Theirpurposeistoencouragereaderstoaccepttheirpointofview.Inordertoconvincereadersoftheirpointofview,writersshouldavoidfallaciesintheirreasoning.Fallaciesdefined

Fallaciesarestatementsthatmaysoundreasonableortruebutarenotlogicallydefensibleandmayactuallybedeceptive(似是而非的，欺骗性的）.Typesoffallacies

1.Hastygeneralization

Thisfallacyoccurswhenaconclusionisreachedonthebasisofinsufficientdataordatathatisnotrepresentative.E.g.PersonAtravelsthroughTownXforthefirsttime.Hesees10people,allofthemchildren.PersonAreturnstohistownandreportsthattherearenoadultresidentsinTownX.

E.g.MyAmericanclassmatesareanoisybunch.IconcludethatAmericanstudentsalwaysbehaveimproperly.

2.Oversimplifiedgeneralization

Thisfallacyoccurswhenthewriterattemptstosimplifyasomewhatcomplexissuebymakingabroad,sweepinggeneralization,thusreducinganargumentorissuetoamereskeletalstructure.Forexample:Timeismoney.

3.Posthoc(假性因果)Thisisafallacyofassumingthatsimplybecauseoneeventfollowsanother,thereiscausalrelationbetweenthetwo.Forexample:Let’snottakeBillonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.

4.Either-orfallacy

Thiskindofargumentassumesthatthereareonlytwoalternativesregardlessofotherpossibilities.Forexample:Yourrunnynoseandcoughtellmethatyoueitherhaveacoldortheflu.

5.Beggingthequestion

BeggingtheQuestionisafallacyinwhichthepremisesincludetheclaimthattheconclusionistrueorassumethattheconclusionistrue.Forexample:

Bill:Godmustexist.

Jill:Howdoyouknow?

Bill:BecausetheBiblesaysso.

Jill:WhyshouldIbelievetheBible?

Bill:BecausetheBiblewaswrittenbyGod.

6.Falseanalogy

Anargumentbasedonananalogyandignoringimportantdissimilaritiesbetweenthetwothingsbeingcomparedisafallacy.Forexample:Naturedestroystheweakandonlythestrongsurvive.So,too,anationshouldpurge（清除）itselfofitsweakmembers.

7.Appealtodoubtfulauthority

Thisfallacyoccurswhensomeonetriestodemonstratethetruthofapropositionbycitingsomepersonwhoagrees,eventhoughthatpersonmayhavenoexpertiseinthegivenarea.Forexample:IsaacNewtonbelievedinastrology,sotheremustbesomethingtoit.

Ex.Identifythetypeoffallacythatoccursinthefollowingstatements.1.Iknowseveralvegetarianswhohavelivedhealthilyintotheireighties.Thereisnodoubtthatstickingtoavegetariandietpromoteslongevity.Hastygeneralization2.Povertycausescrime.Oversimplifiedgeneralization3.Ican’tspeakJapanese.Johncan’tspeakJapanese.SoIconcludenooneinthisclasscanspeakJapanese.Hastygeneralization4.Thesecriminalsareamenacetosocietybecausetheyaredangerous.Beggingthequestion5.Manager:“Youmusthavenoticedthatoursalesrocketedafterweinstitutedournewadvertisingcampaign.Oursuccessisobvious.”Posthoc6.Thiscomputersystemisthemostsophisticatedofitskindbecauseourliteratureprofessorsaidso.Appealtodoubtfulauthority7.Thesevideosareveryfrighteningbecausetheyarescary.Beggingtothequestion8.Isawayoungmanleavethebuildingonlyfiveminutesbeforeitwasonfire.Iamsurethathesetthefire.Posthoc9.Wecanbelievewhatissaidinthecompanymanualbecausethemanualitselfsaysitistheofficialpublicationofthecompany.BeggingtothequestionTheformerviewpointcanbeproved,butthelaterisarguable.Sincethemid-1940’sover200basicchemicalshavebeencreatedforuseinkillinginsects,weeds,andotherorganismsdescribedas“pests”;andtheyaresoldunderseveralthousanddifferentbrandnames.Whattypeofwritingshouldwewritejudgingfromthefollowingtitles?Howtowriteanargumentation(1)AdebatablepointThisisundeniablytrueofmanyotherplacesinChina.Yourrunnynoseandcoughtellmethatyoueitherhaveacoldortheflu.Thisfallacyoccurswhenaconclusionisreachedonthebasisofinsufficientdataordatathatisnotrepresentative.Thisfallacyoccurswhenthewriterattemptstosimplifyasomewhatcomplexissuebymakingabroad,sweepinggeneralization,thusreducinganargumentorissuetoamereskeletalstructure.Structureoftherefutation:Writers/publicspeakersuseemotionalappeals,becausereaders/audiencesareseldompersuadedbyrationalargumentsalone.(3)GoodlogicOtherloversarguethattheymeantogetmarriedaftergraduation,andthisexperiencecanhelpthemtesteachothertoseeiftheyaresuitableformarriedlife.Internet–theIndispensableofOurLifeESupplyingproofforthepointofviewConclusion:Restatementofclaim;Finalappeal;UrgetotakeactionTheformerviewpointcanbeproved,butthelaterisarguable.Hesees10people,allofthemchildren.Thenineachparagraphthatfollows,youshouldarrangeShouldClassAttendanceBeRequired?AButthismentalitydoesnotholdwater.Aslongasweputtheoriesintopractice,wecangrasptheiressencebetter.FallaciesdefinedConvincingreadersthatthepointofviewissoundThosedisastersmerelykilledalimitednumberofpeople.So,throughdoingbusiness,weuniversitystudentsaremorelikelytobeahigh-caliber（才干）intellectualandmakeagreatercontributiontosocietyinfuture.(5)Gooduseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting—description,narration,andespeciallythevariousmethodsofexposition.Observationfrompersonalexperience,e.Bycontrast,passage2beginswithspecificevidenceaboutthedangerposedbytheir“nonselective”powertokill.(1)Adebatablepointappealingtoneeds10.Well,youmustmakeadecisionrightnow.Willyoucontribute200yuantoourdisasterrelieffund,ordoyouhavenosympathyforthosewhohavesurvivedtheearthquake?Either-orfallacy11.Thebrainislikeasponge.Thebrainabsorbsknowledge;aspongeabsorbswater.Afteratime,thespongebecomessaturated（浸透的）andcanholdnomorewater.Thereforelearningmustalsostopafteratimebecausethebraincanholdnomoreknowledge.FalseanalogyEmotionalappeals

Theemotionalappealdefined：Emotionalappealisastrategywritersandpublicspeakersusetopersuade,whichistoarousethereader’s/audience’sfeelingstoreinforceanargument.Writers/publicspeakersuseemotionalappeals,becausereaders/audiencesareseldompersuadedbyrationalargumentsalone.Argumentationdoesnotdependonemotionalappealsalone.Anappealtofeelingscanonlyreinforceanargumentthatisfundamentallyrational.Emotionalappealsandtheaudience：Audiencereferstoawriter’sreaders,inotherwords,thepeoplehe/shewantstopersuade.Analyzeyouraudiencecarefullybyansweringthefollowingquestionsandworkoutthebestwaytoappealtotheiremotions.Whoaremyreaders?Whatvaluesdomyreadersshare?Ismyargumentgoingtochallengeanyofmyreaders’beliefsandvalues?HowcanIwinthemover?Effectiveemotionalappeals：Drawonsharedbeliefsandvalues.Anargumentisnotaverbalwar.Whenyouwantyourreaderstoacceptyourviewsandperhapstakeactionaccordingly,searchforcommongroundsevenifyouareaddressinganaudiencewhosepositioniscompletelyopposedtoyourown.Appealtoyouraudience’semotionsinanappropriateway.Don’toverdoit.Emotionalappealscanbemoreeffectivewithoutthewriterbeingexcessivelysentimental.Bearinmindthatthesimple,precisepresentationoffacts,withoutover-dramatizingacaseissometimesmorepersuasivethanahighlyemotionalappeal.Ex.Studyandcomparethefollowingtwopassages