国会研究服务部-新冠疫情大流行期间的失业率（英文）-2021.5-27正式版

UnemploymentRatesDuringtheCOVID-19Pandemic

UpdatedMay20,2021

CongressionalResearchService

R46554

UnemploymentRatesDuringtheCOVID-19Pandemic

TheCoronavirusDisease2019(COVID-19)pandemichashadasignificanteffectonlabormarketmetricsforeverystate,economicsector,andmajordemographicgroupintheUnitedStates.Thisreportprovidesinformationonunemploymentrates,laborforceparticipationrates,andnonfarmpayrollsintheUnitedStatesduringtheongoingpandemic.ItpresentsCRSanalysisofoverallunemploymentratetrendsduringthepandemic.Thereportfirstexaminesthesetrendsnationally,andatthestateandindustriallevels.Next,itexamineshowunemploymentratesvariedacrossdemographicgroups.Thereportthenrepeatsthisanalysis,whereappropriate,forthelaborforceparticipationrate,whichshedslightonthesizeoftheworkforcewillingandavailableforwork.Thefinalportionofthereportanalyzestheimpactthepandemichashadonoverallemploymentandbysector.

Amongotherfindings,thisreportshowsthefollowing:

InApril2020,theunemploymentratereached14.8%—thehighestrateobservedsincedatacollectionbeganin1948.InApril2021,unemploymentremainedhigher(6.1%)thanithadbeeninFebruary2020(3.5%).

SUMMARY

R46554

May20,2021

GeneFalk,Coordinator

SpecialistinSocialPolicy

PaulD.Romero

ResearchAssistant

JamesonA.Carter

ResearchAssistant

IsaacA.Nicchitta

ResearchAssistant

EmmaC.Nyhof

ResearchAssistant

Thelaborforceparticipationratedeclinedto60.2%inApril2020—alevelnotseensincetheearly1970s—thenbeganapartialrecoveryinMay2020.Thelaborforceparticipationratewas61.7%inApril2021,1.7percentagepointsbelowthelevelinJanuary2020,beforethepandemicandtheeconomicrecession.

Nonfarmpayrollsshed22.1millionjobsbetweenJanuary2020andApril2020,withemploymentdecliningto86%ofitspre-recessionlevel.InApril2021,aggregateemploymentremained7.9millionjobsbelowitspre-recessionlevel.

TheCOVID-19pandemichasimpactedeconomicsectorsdisparately.TheleisureandhospitalitysectorlostthelargestnumberofjobssinceJanuary2020,andpersonslastemployedinthissectorhaveconsistentlyexhibitedsomeofthehighestunemploymentratesthroughoutthepandemic.Additionally,theeducationandservicessectorandthegovernmentsectorhaveexhibitedthesecondandthird-largestlossesinjobssinceJanuary2020,despiterelativelylowunemploymentratesamongpersonslastemployedinthesesectors.

TheCOVID-19pandemichasimpacteddemographicgroupsdisparately.Althoughalldemographicgroupswereaffected,personsidentifyingasBlackorHispanicandyoungerworkersgenerallyexperiencedrelativelyhighpeaksinunemploymentandrelativelysteepdeclinesinlaborforceparticipationoverthecourseofthepandemic.Additionally,personswithlowereducationalattainmenthavegenerallyexperiencedrelativelyhigherunemploymentratesandlowerlaborforceparticipationthroughoutthepandemic.

CongressionalResearchService

UnemploymentRatesDuringtheCOVID-19Pandemic

Contents

Introduction

1

U.S.UnemploymentRate:HistoricalTrends

2

ComparingtheGreatRecessionandtheCOVID-19Recession

4

COVID-19Recession:UnemploymentTrends

5

UnemploymentRatesbyState

5

UnemploymentRatesbySector

6

UnemploymentRatesforFull-andPart-TimeWorkers

8

UnemploymentRatesbySexandAge

9

UnemploymentRatesbyRacialGroupandHispanicEthnicity

10

UnemploymentRatesbyEducation

12

U.S.LaborForceParticipationRate:HistoricalTrends

12

COVID-19Recession:TrendsinLaborForceParticipation

14

LaborForceParticipationRatebyAgeandSex

14

LaborForceParticipationRatebyRaceandEthnicity

15

LaborForceParticipationRatebyEducationalAttainment

17

COVID-19Recession:NonfarmPayrolls

17

TrendsinEmploymentinthePrivateSector

18

TrendsinEmploymentbyGovernmentSector

19

DataLimitationsandCaveats

20

COVID19Pandemic-RelatedDataIssues

21

GeneralDataCaveats

22

Figures

Figure1.HistoricalUnemploymentRate

3

Figure2.U.S.UnemploymentRate

4

Figure3.StateUnemploymentRate

6

Figure4.UnemploymentRatesbySector

7

Figure5.UnemploymentRatesforPart-andFull-TimeWorkers

9

Figure6.UnemploymentRatesbySexandAge

10

Figure7.UnemploymentRatesbyRacialGroup

11

Figure8.UnemploymentRatesbyHispanicOrigin

11

Figure9.UnemploymentRatesbyEducation

12

Figure10.HistoricalLaborForceParticipationRate

13

Figure11.LaborForceParticipationRateDuringCOVID-19Pandemic

14

Figure12.LaborForceParticipationRatebyAgeandSex

15

Figure13.LaborForceParticipationRatebyRace

16

Figure14.LaborForceParticipationRatebyHispanicOrigin

16

Figure15.LaborForceParticipationRatebyEducationalAttainment

17

Figure16.ChangeinEmploymentbySector

18

Figure17.JobLossDuringtheCOVID-19RecessioninthePrivateSector

19

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UnemploymentRatesDuringtheCOVID-19Pandemic

Figure18.JobLossDuringtheCOVID-19PandemicinthePublicSector

20

Contacts

AuthorInformation

22

CongressionalResearchService

UnemploymentRatesDuringtheCOVID-19Pandemic

Introduction

TheNationalBureauofEconomicResearchdeclaredthestartofthecurrenteconomicdownturninFebruary2020,markingtheendofthelongestperiodofexpansioninU.S.history.1ThisexpansionfollowedtheGreatRecession(December2007toJune2009),adownturnwidelyconsideredtobetheworstsincetheGreatDepression(August1929toMarch1933).2TheunemploymentraterosequicklyinMarch2020,andbyApril2020ithadgreatlysurpasseditspreviouspeaksobservedduringandjustaftertheGreatRecession.Thisriseinunemploymentwascausedbyanunprecedentedlossof22.1millionjobsbetweenJanuary2020andApril2020.Manyindividualsleftthelaborforceoverthisperiod,andbyApril2020thelaborforceparticipationrate3declinedtoalevelnotseensincetheearly1970s.

ThisdeteriorationintheU.S.labormarketcorrespondedwithvariousadvisoryormandatedstay-at-homeordersimplementedinresponsetotheCoronavirusDisease2019(COVID-19)pandemicandotherpandemic-relatedfactorsaffectingU.S.demand.4Statesandlocalitiesimplementedtheseorders5tomitigatetherisksofCOVID-19afteritwasdeclaredapandemicdiseasebytheWorldHealthOrganizationonMarch11,2020.6

ThisreportdiscussesthestateoftheU.S.labormarketusingdatafromtheBureauofLaborStatistics(BLS).ThethreeprimarysourcesaretheCurrentPopulationSurvey(CPS),theLocalAreaUnemploymentStatistics(LAUS)program,andtheCurrentEmploymentStatistics(CES)program.Inadditiontotheusualcaveatsaboutestimates(seethe“GeneralDataCaveats”section),therewereadditionaldatachallengescausedbytheCOVID-19pandemic(seethe“COVID-19Pandemic-RelatedDataIssues”section).Thepandemicledtolowersurveyresponseratesbybusinessesandhouseholds,andBLSdetectedanerrorintheircategorizationproceduresthatlikelyunderestimatedunemploymentearlyintherecession.7LaborforceparticipationrateswerenotaffectedbythiscategorizationerrorandmetBLSstandardsofaccuracy,despitedepressedresponserates.8BLSalsoidentifiedanerrorinthenonfarmenrollmentdataprocessing

TheNationalBureauofEconomicResearch;see/cycles.htmlfortheirhistoricalseriesofexpansionsandcontractions.Formoreontheirprocessfordeterminingexpansionsandcontractions,see/cycles/recessionsfaq.html#:~:text=What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.&text=Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief.

TheGreatRecessionwasaparticularlylongrecession,characterizedbyasteadyandlargeincreaseinunemploymentandunprecedenteddecreasesinlaborforceparticipation.TheunemploymentratesobservedduringtheGreatRecession,however,neversurpassedthoseoftheearly1980s.FormoreonlaborforcemetricsduringtheGreatRecessionseeCRSReportR45330,LaborMarketPatternsSince2007,bySarahA.DonovanandMarcLabonte.

Definedasthepercentageofpersonsintheoveralladultpopulationwhoeitherhaveajoborarelookingforajob.

SeeCRSInsightIN11388,COVID-19:U.S.EconomicEffects,byRenaS.MillerandMarcLabonte.

Foralistofstate-levelstay-at-homeordersandestimatesoftheimpactoftheseordersonriskmitigation,seeAmandaMoreland,ChristineHerlihy,andMichaelA.Tynanetal.,TimingofStateandTerritorialCOVID-19Stay-at-HomeOrdersandChangesinPopulationMovement,CentersforDiseaseControl,MorbidityandMortalityWeeklyReportVol.69No.35,Washington,DC,September4,2020,pp.1198-1203,/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6935a2.htm?s_cid=mm6935a2_w.

WorldHealthOrganization,CoronavirusDisease2019(COVID-19),SituationReport51,March11,2020,p.1,/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200311-sitrep-51-covid-19.pdf.

SeeCRSInsightIN11456,COVID-19:MeasuringUnemployment,byLidaR.Weinstock.

ForBLSimpactsummariesofCOVID-19onthesemeasures,see/covid19/effects-of-covid-19-pandemic-and-response-on-the-employment-situation-news-release.htm.

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systemwhereinsomebusinesseswereimproperlyincludedinestimates,althoughBLShassincedeterminedtheimpactsofthiserrorwereinsignificant.9

Thisreportgenerallyfindsthefollowing:

Theunemploymentratepeaked10inApril2020,atalevelnotseensincedatacollectionstartedin1948,beforedecliningtoalevelinApril2021thatstillremained2.6percentagepointsabovetherateobservedinFebruary2020.

InApril2020,thelaborforceparticipationratedeclinedtolevelsnotseensincetheearly1970s.Laborforceparticipationhasimprovedsincethento61.7%,whichremains1.7percentagepointsbelowitspre-recessionlevel.

Nonfarmpayrollsshed22.1millionjobsbetweenJanuary2020andApril2020.InApril2021,aggregateemploymentremained7.9millionjobsbelowitspre-recessionlevel.

U.S.UnemploymentRate:HistoricalTrends

Priorrecessionstypicallydevelopedwithgraduallyincreasingeconomicdistress.ThecurrentrecessionwascausedbytheCOVID-19pandemic,whichwasanabruptandexogenousshocktotheeconomy.Thepandemicresultedinrapidlyimplementedeffortstolimitcontactamongindividualsandmanyshutdownorders.Therefore,thetrendsintheunemploymentrateinthecurrentrecessiondifferfromthoseinpriorrecessions(see

Figure1

).Ratesobservedduringpriorrecessionsroserelativelygraduallyoverthecourseofaneconomicdownturnandthenpeaked.

Thecurrentrecessionexhibitedanunprecedentedsharpincreaseintheunemploymentrate(10.3percentagepoints)fromFebruarytoApril2020.11FollowingApril,theratedeclinedrapidly(6.4percentagepointsfromApril2020toAugust2020)astemporarilyfurloughedworkersreturnedtowork.Despitetheserapiddeclines,theunemploymentrateremainsatanelevatedlevel(6.1%)comparedtoFebruary2020.TheshareofworkersonfurloughhasdeclinedsincepeakinginApril2020,whiletheshareofpermanentlylaidoffworkershassteadilyincreased.12Althougheconomicprojectionshavegenerallyimprovedsinceearlyintherecession,theCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)hasprojectedthatunemploymentratesover5.0%willpersistoverthenexttwoyears.13

Foradescriptionofthiserror,see/ces/notices/2021/ces-sample-rotation-issue-caused-by-pandemic-related-challenges-to-enrollment.htm.

Throughoutthisreport,peakreferstothehighestlevelofunemploymentbetweenJanuary2020andApril2021.Itdoesnotaccountformonthsoutsidethisrange.

ForinformationonthedifferencesbetweenthecongressionalresponsetothecurrentrecessioncomparedtothecongressionalresponseduringtheGreatRecessionintheUnemploymentInsurancesystem,seeCRSReportR46472,ComparingtheCongressionalResponsetotheGreatRecessionandtheCOVID-19-RelatedRecession:UnemploymentInsurance(UI)Provisions,byKatelinP.IsaacsandJulieM.Whittaker.

CRSanalysisofBLSdata,whichcanbefoundat/webapps/legacy/cpsatab11.htm.Workersontemporarylayoffdeclinedfrom18.0millioninApril2020to2.1millioninApril2021asthenumberofpermanentjoblosersincreasedfrom2.6millioninApril2020to3.5millioninApril2021.

See/about/products/budget-economic-data#4forCBO’s10-yeareconomicprojectionsofunemploymentrates,asofFebruary2021.

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Figure1.HistoricalUnemploymentRate

Seasonallyadjustedmonthlydata,January1948toApril2021

Source:CreatedbyCRSusingdatafromtheBureauofLaborStatistics(BLS).ExtractedusingtheLaborForceStatisticsdataseriesat/data/.

Notes:ShadedregionsindicaterecessionaryperiodsasidentifiedbytheNationalBureauofEconomicResearch.

Theunemploymentrate’srelativelyrapiddeclinesinceApril2020mayhavebeenaidedbylawspassedinresponsetoboththerecessionandthepandemic.Notably,Congresshaspassedthreeroundsofstimuluschecksforfamilies,14expandednutritionassistanceprograms,15andenactedincreasesinrefundabletaxcredits(whicharenotscheduledtobedisburseduntilJuly2021).16Theseprovisionsincreasefamilies’disposableincomeandthosewhichhavetakeneffectmayhaveincreasedconsumerspending,enablingbusinessestobetterenduretherecession;a2020studyfromNBERfoundthathigherreplacementratesoflostwagesledtohigherconsumerspending.17CongressalsoenactedthePaycheckProtectionProgram,whichprovidesloansthatcanbefullyforgivenifthemajorityoffundsareusedtomaintainpayrolls.18

Additionally,CongressexpandedUnemploymentInsurance(UI)programbenefitsandextendedlengthofcoverage.19ThispolicycoulddirectlyincreasetheunemploymentratebecausepastresearchhasshownUIextensionscanincreasethedurationofunemploymentforarelatively

Formoreinformation,seeCRSInsightIN11605,COVID-19andDirectPayments:ComparisonofFirstandSecondRoundof“StimulusChecks”totheThirdRoundintheAmericanRescuePlanActof2021(ARPA;P.L.117-2),byMargotL.Crandall-Hollick.

Formoreinformation,seeCRSReportR46681,USDANutritionAssistancePrograms:ResponsetotheCOVID-19Pandemic,byRandyAlisonAussenbergandKaraCliffordBillings.

Formoreinformation,seeCRSReportR46680,TheAmericanRescuePlanActof2021(ARPA;P.L.117-2):TitleIX,SubtitleG—TaxProvisionsRelatedtoPromotingEconomicSecurity,byMollyF.Sherlock,MargotL.Crandall-Hollick,andJaneG.Gravelle.

MiguelG.Casado,BrittaGlennon,andJuliaLane,etal.,TheEffectofFiscalStimulus:EvidencefromCOVID-19,NBER,WorkingPaper27576,Cambridge,MA,August2020,/papers/w27576.

Formoreonthistopicandtheoriesofrecessionarypolicy,alsoseeCRSReportR46460,FiscalPolicyandRecoveryfromtheCOVID-19Recession,byJaneG.GravelleandDonaldJ.Marples.

Formoreinformation,seeCRSReportR46397,SBAPaycheckProtectionProgram(PPP)LoanForgiveness:InBrief,byRobertJayDilgerandSeanLowry.

Formoreinformation,seeCRSReportR46687,CurrentStatusofUnemploymentInsurance(UI)Benefits:Permanent-LawProgramsandCOVID-19PandemicResponse,byJulieM.WhittakerandKatelinP.Isaacs.

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smallsegmentofunemployedworkers.20ArecentpaperexaminingdatafromApriltoJulyof2020foundthatwhileUIbenefitincreasesreducedemploymentby0.2%to0.4%,overallspendingbyrecipientsincreasedby2.0%to2.6%.21Theauthorsnotethatwhiletheseexpansionsdirectlydecreasedemploymentamongrecipients,thatincreasedspendingamongrecipientsmayhaveinsulatedthelabormarketfromfurtherdeterioration.

These(andother)policiesmayhaveaffectedunemploymentratetrendsinseveralways;however,thecausalimpactofpolicychoicesontheunemploymentrateisbeyondthescopeofthisreport.

ComparingtheGreatRecessionandtheCOVID-19Recession

DuringtheGreatRecession,theunemploymentrateincreasedfrom5.0%inDecember2007(thestartoftherecession)to9.5%inJune2009(theendoftherecession)(see

Figure2

).Theunemploymentratepeakedat10.0%inOctober2009,fourmonthsaftertherecessionofficiallyconcluded.Inthecurrentrecession,theunemploymentrateincreasedfrom3.5%inFebruary2020,to4.4%inMarch2020,andthenpeakedatahighof14.8%inApril2020.Sincethen,theunemploymentratefellto6.1%inApril2021.Thepeakrepresentsthequickestmonth-over-monthincreaseintheunemploymentrateandthehighestoverallunemploymentratesincetheCPSdatastartedbeingcollectedin1948.22

Figure2.U.S.UnemploymentRate

Seasonallyadjustedmonthlydata,November2004toApril2021

Source:CreatedbyCRSusingdatafromtheBureauofLaborStatistics(BLS).ExtractedusingtheLaborForceStatisticsdataseriesat/data/.

ThestudycitedhereshowedthatUIextensionsduringGreatRecessionincreasedtheunemploymentrateof0.4percentagepoints.HenryS.FarberandRobertG.Valletta,DoExtendedUnemploymentBenefitsLengthenUnemploymentSpells?EvidencefromRecentCyclesintheU.S.LaborMarket,NBER,WorkingPaper19048,Cambridge,MA,May2013,/papers/w19048.

PeterGanongetal.,SpendingandJobSearchImpactsofExpandedUnemploymentBenefits:EvidencefromAdministrativeMicroData,BeckerFriedmanInstitute,WorkingPaperNo.2021-19,Chicago,IL,February2021,/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/BFI_WP_2021-19.pdf.

TherearemanydifferencesinlaborforcestatisticsobservedduringtheGreatRecession,itsaftermath,andtheCOVID-19recession.Formoreonthisandforinformationonlabormarketpatternssince2007,seeCRSReportR45330,LaborMarketPatternsSince2007,bySarahA.DonovanandMarcLabonte.

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COVID-19Recession:UnemploymentTrends

TheCOVID-19pandemichasaffectedtheunemploymentratesforeverystate,economicsector,andmajordemographicgroup.Intheearlystagesofthecurrentrecession,unemploymentratesdisproportionatelyincreasedamongeconomicsectorsdeliveringin-personservices.Somedemographicgroupsareoverrepresentedinsuchsectors,contributingtohigherunemploymentratesforthoseworkers.23

UnemploymentRatesbyState

Figure3

displaysstate-levelmonthlyunemploymentratesfromJanuary2020toMarch2021(thestate-leveldataforApril2021havenotbeenreleasedasofthecoverdateofthisreport).Thefigureshowsthatnostatewasimmunefromeconomicdamageearlyinthepandemic.24Sincetheonsetofthecurrentrecession,theunemploymentrateforeverystateandtheDistrictofColumbiasurpassedlevelsseenduringtheGreatRecession.Thevariationineconomicdamagewasduetoanumberoffactors,includingtheproportionofjobsinsectorsthatprovidenonessentialservicestoin-personcustomers,25individualconcernsofcontractingCOVID-19causingdeclinesinpersonalconsumption,26andtheimplementationofstay-at-homeordersandbusinessclosurepolicies.27

GuidoMatiasCortesandElizaForsythe,“TheHeterogeneousLaborMarketImpactsoftheCovid-19Pandemic,”UpjohnInstitute,May2020;andRobertFairlie,“TheImpactofCovid-19onSmallBusinessOwners:EvidenceofEarly-StageLossesfromtheApril2020CurrentPopulationSurvey,”NBERWorkingPaperNo.27309,June2020.

FelipeLozano-Rojasetal.,“IstheCureWorsethantheProblemItself?ImmediateLaborMarketEffectsofCOVID-

CaseRatesandSchoolClosuresintheU.S.,”NBERWorkingPaperNo.27127,May2020;ElizaForsytheetal.,“LaborDemandintheTimeofCOVID-19:EvidencefromVacancyPostingsandUIClaims,”NBERWorkingPaper

No.27061,April2020.

MatthewDeyandMarkLoewenstein,“HowmanyworkersareemployedinsectorsdirectlyaffectedbyCOVID-19shutdowns,wheredotheywork,andhowmuchdotheyearn?”MonthlyLaborReview,April2020.

AustanGoolsbeeandChadSyverson,“Fear,lockdown,anddiversion:comparingdriversofpandemiceconomicdecline2020,”NBERWorkingPaperNo.27432,June2020.

SumedhaGuptaetal.,“EffectsofSocialDistancingPolicyonLaborMarketOutcomes,”NBERWorkingPaperNo.2780,May2020.

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Figure3.StateUnemploymentRate

Seasonallyadjustedmonthlydata,January2020toMarch2021

Source:CreatedbyCRSusingdatafromtheBureauofLaborStatistics(BLS).ExtractedusingtheLaborForceStatisticsdataseriesat/data/.

Notes:TheNationalBureauofEconomicResearchidentifiedFebruary2020asthefirstmonthofthecurrentrecession.Themonth-over-monthchangesarepointestimatesandhavenotbeentestedforsignificance.Thestate-leveldataforApril2021havenotbeenreleasedasofthecoverdateofthisreport.

TheunemploymentrateinmoststatespeakedinApril2020andhassincedeclined.InMarch2021,thestateswiththehighestunemploymentrateswereHawaii(9.0%),NewYork(8.5%),California(8.3%),Connecticut(8.3%),andNewMexico(8.3%).ThestateswiththelowestunemploymentratesinMarch2021wereSouthDakota(2.9%),Utah(2.9%),Nebraska(2.9%),Vermont(2.9%),andNewHampshire(3.0%).

UnemploymentRatesbySector

Figure4

displaysthechangeinsectorunemploymentratesfromJanuary2020,beforethestartoftherecession,toApril2021.Sectorunemploymentratesdefinetheunemploymentrateamongindividualswhoselastjobwasinaparticularsector.Thefigureshowsthatsomesectorsweredisparatelyimpactedbytherecession,althoughthedataarenotseasonallyadjusted.Withoutseasonaladjustments,itisdifficulttodeterminetheextenttowhichunemploymenttrendsarerelatedtotherecessionortoseasonaltrends.Readersshouldinterprettrendsshownin

Figure4

withsomecautionasthisreportdoesnottestforstatisticalsignificanceofthesedifferences.

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Figure4.UnemploymentRatesbySector

Non-seasonallyadjustedmonthlydata,January2020toApril2021

Source:CreatedbyCRSusingdatafromtheBureauofLaborStatistics(BLS).ExtractedusingtheLaborForceStatisticsdataseriesat/data/.

Notes:Statisticalsignificanceisnotcalculatedforthesetrendsanditisunclearhowdependentthesetrendsareonregularseasonalvariation.SectorsaredefinedbytheNorthAmericanIndustryClassificationSystem(NAICS)andcanbefoundat/iag/tgs/iag_index_naics.htm.Thefigureshowsunemploymentratesforwageandsalaryworkers.Twosectorsdonothavedisplayedpeakunemploymentrates.Theminingsectorexperiencedtwopeaksof19.3%inNovember2020andFebruary2021,whiletheagriculturesectorexperienceditspeakbeforetherecessionandpandemicbegan(12.5%inJanuary2020).

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Workerswhoselastjobwasintheleisureandhospitalitysectorexperiencedahigherpeakinunemployment(39.3%inApril2020)thandidworkerswhowerepreviouslyemployedinanyothersector;theyalsohadthesecondhighestunemploymentrateinApril2021(10.8%).However,elevatedunemploymentratesarenotconstrainedtosectorsprovidingin-personservices.Workerswhoselastjobwasintheminingorextractionsectorhaveexperiencedsteadilyincreasingunemploymentsincetheonsetoftherecession;inApril2021theyexhibitedthehighestrate(14.3%)amongallworkersacrosssectors.ThelowestApril2021rateswereamongworkerswhoselastjobwasinthegovernment(2.3%),financialactivities(2.7%),oreducationandhealthservices(3.4%)sectors.ThesesectorshaveexhibitedrelativelylowunemploymentratescomparedtomostothersectorsfromFebruary2020throughApril2021.28Withinsectors,someworkersweremorelikelytolosetheirjobsthanothersearlyintherecession.Forexample,somestudiesfromearlyinthepandemicsuggestthatlow-wageworkersintheleisureandhospitalitysectorandotherservicessectorsexperienceddisproportionatelylargeemploymentlosses.29

UnemploymentRatesforFull-andPart-Tim