海上风电场海水养殖一体化

FromTurbinetoWindFarms-TechnicalRequirementsandSpin-OffPPerceivedConcernsandAdvocatedOrganisationalStructuresofOwnershipSupporting‘OffshoreWindFarm—MaricultureIntegration’表示关注和主张组织结构的企业支持“离岸风场—海水养殖一体化”GescheKrause,RobertMauriceGriffinandBelaHieronymusBuck1LeibnizCenterforTropicalMarineEcology(ZMT),Bremen1莱布尼兹热带海洋生态中心(ZMT),不莱梅2DepartmentofEnvironmentalandNaturalResourceEconomics,UniversityofRhodeIsland2环境与自然资源经济学院，罗德岛大学3AlfredWegenerInstituteforPolarandMarineScience(AWI),Bremerhaven3阿尔弗雷德韦格纳极地和海洋科学研究所(AWI),不来梅港4InstituteforMarineResources(IMARE),Bremerhaven4海洋资源研究所(IMARE),不来梅港5UniversityofAppliedSciencesBremerhaven,Bremerhaven5不莱梅应用科学技术大学，不来梅港1,3,4,5Germany1,2,4,5德国2USA2美国1.Introduction1.引言InGermanyamajorpoliticalincentiveexistscurrentlytoinstalllargeoffshorewindfarms(Tiedemann,2003;BMU/StiftungOffshoreWindenergie,2007).ThepromotionofwindpowerespeciallyinoffshoreregionsismainlydrivenbythepolicytoreducedependenceonconventionalfossilenergyresourcesaswellastheneedtoreducetheenvironmentallyharmfulCO2loads.在德国建设海上的风场寻在强大的政策刺激(Tiedemann,2003;BMU/StiftungOffshoreWindenergie,2007).促进近海风电巨大发展的主要动力是减少常规化石能源的依赖和减轻环境二氧化碳的符合。Offshorewindfarmsaredefinedhereasagroupofwindturbinesinthesameconfinedareausedforproductionofelectricpowerintheopenocean.Movingoffthecoasttotheoffshore,windturbinesarelessobtrusivethanturbinesonland,astheirapparentsizeandnoiseismitigatedbydistance.近海风场被定义为在公海一有限区域内一组用于电力生产的风力发电机组。由于是离岸布置，风电机组相比陆上压迫感更低，距离的原因使得外观尺寸和噪音都有缓和。Sincewaterhaslesssurfaceroughnessthanland(especiallyindeeperwaters),theaveragewindspeedisusuallyconsiderablyhigherovertheopenwater.Atpresent47projectapplicationsforwindfarmsintheEconomicExclusiveZone(EEZ)oftheGermanNorthSeaandintheBalticSeaareintheplanningprocess(BSH,2008)withatotalnumberofwindturbinesperfarmrangingbetween80and500(Bucketal.,2008).由于水（尤其是深海）相比陆地表面粗糙度更低，平均风速通常高于公共水面。目前47%的项目在北海经济特区（EEZ）而在计划中的位于波罗的海（BSH，2008），每个厂的风机规模在80到500台之间(Bucketal.,2008)。ThestrongexpansionofoffshorewindfarmsinthemarineenvironmentoftheNorthSeaincreasesthestressonseaareasthathaveformerlybeenusedforotherpurposes,suchasforfisheryorshippingactivities,orthatarestillseeminglyfreeofhumanactivity(Krauseetal.,2003;Wirtzetal.,2003).离岸机组在北海环境中的巨大扩张增加了海域负担，这些海域原来用于诸如渔场，航运或者似乎仍未被人类活动沾染（Krauseetal.,2003;Wirtzetal.,2003）。Hence,theemergingoffshorewindindustryisquicklybecomingalargestakeholderintheoffshorearena(Gierloff-Emden,2002;Dahlke,2002;Tiedemann,2003).Thishasleadtoconflictsofinterestamongthedifferentusergroupsandhasencouragedresearchontheprospectsofintegratingmaritimeactivitiesunderacombinedmanagementschemeasnewcomerssuchaswindfarmsmakeforadditionalclaimsexcludeotheruses,suchaswild-harvestfisheries.因此，新兴的离岸风电产业迅速成为离岸区域一巨大的利益相关者（Gierloff-Emden,2002;Dahlke,2002;Tiedemann,2003）。这将导致不同组织之间利益的冲突，也将会促使在联合管理方案下集成海洋活动前景的研究，比如风电场对野生渔业额外补偿。Inthiscontext,integratingmarineaquaculturewithdesignatedwindfarmareasmightprovidechancestocombinetwoindustriesintheframeofamultiple-useconcepttheoffshorerealmasincontrasttonearshoreareas.Differenttypesofconflicts,limitationsandpotentialalliancessurface.Theserootintheessentialdifferencesintheorigin,contextanddynamicsofnearshore-versusoffshoreresourceuses.Forinstance,thenearshoreareasinGermanyhavebeensubjecttoalonghistoryoftraditionalusesthroughheterogeneousstakeholdergroupsofthelocaltonationallevels(e.g.localfisheriescommunities,tourismindustry,portdevelopers,military,etc.),inwhichtraditionaluserpatternsemergedoveralongtimeframe.Incontrast,theoffshoreareashaveonlyrecentlyexperiencedconflict.Thiscanbeattributedtotherelativelyrecenttechnologicaladvancementsinshippingandplatformtechnology,bothofwhichhavebeendrivenbycapital-strongstakeholdersthatoperateinternationally.利益相关者分析表明，相比近岸地区，有不同类型的角色参与到了近海地区。不同类型的冲突，限制和潜在的盟友表面。相比近海地区资源利用，这些来源于初始，背景和动态近岸的本质区别。例如，德国的近岸地区就有着的使用多种多样的从本地至国家水平的利益相关者团队（例如本地渔业团体、旅游业、港口开发、军事等等）的悠久历史传统，在很长一段时间内出现了传统的用户模式。相比之下，近海地区仅最近经历了冲突。这是由于相对较近的在航运和平台技术中的技术进步导致的，两者均带动了资本强大的利益相关者的国际化经营。Whereasthereisawell-establishedorganisationalstructurepresentamongthestakeholdersinthenearshoreareasintermsofsocialcapitalandtrust,aswellastestedmodesofconductandsocialnetworks,thesearelackingintheoffshorearea.Indeedforthelatter,ahighpoliticalrepresentationbystakeholdersisobserved,thatpossesssomedegreeof“client”mentalitytowardsdecision-makersintheoffshorerealm.Thesefundamentaldifferencesbetweenthestakeholdersinnearshoreandoffshorewatersmakeastreamlinedapproachtomultipleusemanagementverydifficult.However,whenaddressingtheidentifiedoffshorestakeholders,mostoftheintervieweesweregenerallyinterestedinthisspecifictypeofmultiple-usesettingandvitalizedtheconversationaroundtheguidingquestionswiththeirowncommentsandideas.就社会资本和信任来说，目前在近岸地区的利益相关者之间有完善的组织结构、测试行为模式以及社交网络。这些在近海区域都是缺乏的。的确对于后者来说，利益相关者被发现拥有较高的政治代表性，即相对近岸地区的决策者来说具有某种程度的“客户”心态。这些在近岸和近海海域利益相关者的基本区别使得一个简化的方法多次使用管理变得非常困难。然而，在解决近岸利益相关者确定时，大部分的受访者普遍对这种多种用途设置的特定类型和富有活力的围绕自己的意见和想法的指导问题谈话感兴趣。Concurrentlywithjudging‘windfarm–maricultureintegration’asanideaworthytoconsider,intervieweesmentionedseveralframeworkrequirementsforinitiatingandeffectivelypursuingcross-sectoraloffshoreoperationandorganisation.Notonlyhadcertainpreconditionstobefulfilled,forexampletheneedtoclarifytheworkingtasksandsitingofaquacultureinstallationsintheforehand,butalsooverallregulatoryconditions,e.g.determinationofworkingrules,allocationofresponsibilities,aswellascommercialarrangementsoractuarialregulations(Figure1).Theissueofsharingresponsibilitiesinthecontextofeverydayorganisationandquestionsofownershipwereespeciallystressed.Inthefollowing,wediscusstheorganisationalstructuresofsuchmultiple-usesettingfromanorganisationalperspectiveinmoredetail.同时，判断“风电场—海水养殖一体化”也是一个值得考虑的问题。受访者提到了发起并有效落实几个跨部门的海上作业和组织的框架要求。不仅有一定的先决条件需要达成，例如需要明确工作任务和水产养殖设施的选址，也需要满足整体监管环境，例如测定工作规则，责任分配以及商业安排或精算规定（图1）。特别强调的是在日常组织中责任分担和所有权问题。接下来，我们将从组织的角度更详细地讨论多用途设置的组织结构。4.Discussion4.讨论Theresultsofthisstakeholdersurveycanhelpustodifferentiatethelikelihoodofvariousmariculture-windfarmintegrationscenariosgoingforward,specificallyregardingthevariousformsofownershipandmanagementsuchaventuremighttake.Theattitudesandperceptionsofthesegroupspriortoimplementationareinformedbytheirviewsonthepossiblesynergiesinproductionandorganisationalstructure.Framingtheresultsofthesurveyingandothercontextualinformationinthewell-developedliteratureofinter-firmorganisationandcooperationwillprovideabasisforunderstandingthepotentialofthisconcept.相关利益者调查的结果可以帮助我们区分不同的海水养殖—风场集成化向前迈进成为可能，特别是关于相关产业所有者和企业需承担的风险。这些组织的态度和观点首先使得他们有这样的意识以便在生产和组织机构中产生协同效应。在发达有力的舆论组织和企业调查的与背景信息的结果框架下将会为理解这个潜在的概念提供一个基础。初始条件保护和安全概念银行担保和保险建议和惯例特许（权）法律发展财政支援贻贝场地风电场政府的角色计算规定转租协议补偿手段所有权协议测定工作规则责任分配市场进入管制法律协议商业安排贻贝场地监管条件风电场场址的选择风险评估工作任务说明贻贝场地风电场初始条件保护和安全概念银行担保和保险建议和惯例特许（权）法律发展财政支援贻贝场地风电场政府的角色计算规定转租协议补偿手段所有权协议测定工作规则责任分配市场进入管制法律协议商业安排贻贝场地监管条件风电场场址的选择风险评估工作任务说明贻贝场地风电场Fig.1.Frameworkrequirementsformanaging‘windfarm–maricultureintegration’(modifiedafterMichler-CieluchandKrause,2008).图表1：生物场地和风电场之间的转化框图Thestudyoftheformationofinter-firmorganisationsforthepurposeofamutuallybeneficialprojectorventurehasrootsinmanyresearchfields,withtheoriesrangingfromsociology,economics,psychology,business,andpopulationecology,amongstothers(OsbornandHagedoorn,1997).Theapproachandmethodologyvarieswidelybetweenthesefields.OliverWilliamsonhaspioneeredoneeconomicapproach,couchingthestudyofgovernanceandalliancesintermsoftransactionscosts;seeWilliamson(1996)foracompletetreatment.Arelated,butdivergentapproachistheworkofMarkGranovetter,whotakesthesociologicalconceptof“socialembeddedness”andusesittojustifythemotivationsandoutcomesofinter-firmcooperation;seeGranovetter(1985)forareview.Thefollowinganalysiswillincorporate,wherepossible,theserelatedapproachesandotherstocomprehensivelyviewthechallengesandpotentialofthisnewideaforoffshoreco-production.这种内部关系的研究源于许多研究领域,理论从社会学、经济学、心理学、商业和种群生态学、或者其它的(奥斯本和哈格杜恩,1997)。该方法和理论之间差别很大。奥利弗·威廉姆森开创了一个经济的方法,对于研究治理和联盟的交易成本而言,看到威廉姆森(1996)为一个完整的方案。一个相关的,但不同的工作方法,马克Granovetter的社会学概念“社会根植性”,并使用它来证明企业合作的动机和结果,看Granovetter(1985)审查。下面的分析将会融合,在可能的情况下,这些相关的方法和其他人全面竞争的方法可能会融合的来解决问题。4.1Antecedentvariables4.1前期变量Therearemanyliteraturereviewsthatattempttoidentifythebasicelementsnecessarytoconductcomparativeresearchintointer-firmorganisationalstructuresandprocesses(Grandori&Soda,1995;OsbornandHagedoorn,1997).FollowingGrandoriandSoda’s(1997)framework,thediscussionwillfirstidentifythemotivesforcooperationbetweenmariculturistsandwindfarmersandthenlookatsomelikelyscenariosthatmayevolveforcooperation.有许多文学评论,试图确定必要的基本元素进行比较研究生物内部的结构和关系(Grandori&苏打,1995;奥斯本和哈格杜恩,1997)。以下（Grandori和苏打水1997)的框架,讨论将首先确定风电场和生物群落合作的动机。4.1.1Production4.1.1成果Afirstmotivationcompellingthesegroupstoconsideracooperativeventureisthecostsavingsthatmaybeavailablethroughproductioncomplementarities.Offshoreconstructionandoperationismoreexpensivethannearshoreoronshorefacilitiesforbothindustries,dueprimarilytolargetransportationcostsandvariablesassociatedwiththeunpredictableandhigh-energyenvironmentoftheNorthSea.Availableworkingdaysperyearmayonlybeasmuchas100intheGermanNorthSea(Michler-Cieluchetal.,2009a).Itisofmutualinterestofbothgroupstoreducetheirpotentialoperatingcostsbycollaboratinginthisdifficultenvironment.第一个引人注目的动机是，这些团体考虑的合作风险是节约成本,这可能可以通过生产互补。海上施工和运营成本远大于近岸或陆上设施,主要是由于北海大型运输成本、不确定因素和高耗能环境。在德国北海每年工作日只能多达100天(Michler-Cieluchetal。,2009)。在这种困难环境减少潜在的操作成本是两组的共同感兴趣的。Asoutlinedbyresponsesinthesurvey,logisticalcooperationisofjointinterest.Theabilitytocoordinatepersonnelmovementtomakejointuseoftransportationcapitalisapotentialcost-savingavenueforeitherfirm.Inanoffshoresettingtherecouldbesignificantpotentialforeconomiesofscaleintransport.Marginalincreasesinvesselcapacity(boatorhelicopter)couldprovideforreducedjointtransportationcosts,ifanequitableagreementcouldbemadeforfundingthatcapacityexpansion.概述的调查问卷显示,物流合作是共同利益的。共同使用交通工具是一个节省成本的途径。在一个近海设置可以增加那里的运输经济。增加容器容量(船或直升机)可以降低运输成本,如果一个公平的协议可以扩大收益。Itisworthnotingthattheoperationsandmaintenancescheduleofbothoffshorefacilitieswillneedtobehighlycoordinatedinternally,dictatedbyservicingschedulesandoperationaltasksuniquetoeachfacility.Interlacingtheseschedulesandanyjointlyusedassetswouldhoweverlikelyraisethecostsofcoordination,partlyoffsettinganygainsmadethroughcomplementarylogisticalplanning.值得注意的是,操作和维修计划的需要陆地上设施和计划的高度协调。交错的计划可能会增加协调成本，部分需要后勤补充计划。Thereexistspotentialforothercomplementaritiesthatmayreducecostsforbothfirmsinanintegratedmariculture-windfarmfacilityandprovideamotiveforcoordination:.Interactionattheinitialstagesofplanningandthroughouttheoperatinglifetimeofthefacilitymaypossiblyshortenthedurationoftheadaptivelearningprocessthatoccursinmanybusinessesemployingnewtechnologyormethods(Inkpen2008;Nielsen2010).Theexperienceeachgroupbringstotheventuremayprovideatwo-wayinformationtransfer存在潜在的可以减少成本的其他互补性,两家公司在一个集成的海水养殖风电场设施内可以机动协调：在初始阶段的交互规划和整个操作设施的生命周期可能在许多企业采用新技术或方法时缩短自适应学习过程的持续时间(Inkpen2008;尼尔森2010)。每组的经验带来的风险可能会提供一个双向信息传递。

FromTurbinetoWindFarms-TechnicalRequirementsandSpin-OffProducts208thatmayimproveeachfirm’stechnicalefficiencyofproduction.Theseeconomiesofexperienceandsharedexperienceeffectsmaylowertheaveragecostofproductionforeachfirmovertimeatafasterratethanifoperatingalone(Henderson,1974).那可能会提高每个公司产品的技术效率。以这种方式会提高每个公司的经济效益。ThecurrentregulatoryframeworkincountriesontheNorthSeamakesfew,ifany,allowancesforsimultaneouseconomicuseoftheoceanareaallottedforwindenergyproduction.However,astrongmomentumexistsontheEUleveltoimplementmultipleconcurrentusesofoceanspacewithinthenewMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective.Intheeventthattheselawspermitsuchactivityinthefuture,theremayexistanopportunitytoreducecostsrelatedtobureaucraticrequirementsandpayments.Forinstance,ifagivenareawasrequiredtobeleasedfromthegovernment,thetwofirmsmaybeabletosplitthecostofleasing.Similarlogicappliestosplittingthecostofpreconstructionenvironmentalstudiesandperhapsevenengineeringandotherpreconstructionplans.Costsavingsmaybeoffsetbytheextenttowhichtheseprojectsbecomemorecostlybyincludinganexpandedsuiteofactivities..北海现有的相关法律很少，若有的话，海上风电的经济利用将会实现。然而，在EU水平上将会出现一个新的海洋战略框架指令。万一这项法律在未来允许这样的合作的话，可以减少刚性需求及花费。例如，如果一个被给的区域要求向政府租用，两个公司可以共同分担租用成本。同样的理论可以用到环境的研究、工程建设和其他预先分配计划。也许可以通过扩大的合作来节省更多的花费。CurrentregulationsinsomeNorthSeacountriesalsorequireinsuranceforoffshorewindfarms(Baugh,2009).Dependentonthestructureoftheinter-firmagreementandtheextentofthepolicycoverage,theremaybeanopportunitytohedgeriskandlowerinsurancepremiumsversusoperatingindependentlyatdifferentsites.Theextenttowhichthisispossibleis,inoneway,determinedbytheeconomicviabilityofajointoperationanditsassociatedorganizationalstructureinthefirstplace.Asthisisthefocusofthispaperandconcurrentresearchontheeconomicfeasibilityofajointmariculture-windfarmfacility(GriffinandKrause,2010),amorerigoroustreatmentofinsuranceisbeyondthescopeofthischapter.一些北海的国家的现行法律也需要对海上风电提供保护。依靠交互的协议结构和政策的覆盖范围，可能会规避风险和降低在不同地区独立运行的保险费用。在某种程度上这可能是，从某种意义上讲，决定于联合经营的经济可行性和起初相关的组织结构。这是这篇文章的焦点和合作的经济可行性的研究，一个更严格的保险待遇已经超出了本章的范围。Thefirst,andmostobvious,motivewhenlookingataninter-firmagreementfromthevantagepointofamariculturefirmistheabilitytolocatetheiroperationsinaprotectedoffshoreenvironment.Windfarmsmaybeabletoprovidesomesafetyformaricultureactivitiesaswellasprovideafoundationforanchoringinfrastructure(JamesandSlaski,2006).Oneofthelargestchallengestomovingmaricultureoffshoreisbeingabletoprotectitfromtheimpactsofthesehigh-energyenvironments(Bridger&Costa-Pierce,2003).Recentdevelopmentofinnovativeculturingdevicesforseaweed,musselsandfish(BuckandBuchholz,2004;James&Slaski,2006;Bucketal.,2006,Buck,2007)withintheoffshoresettingandparticularlyinwindfarmsmayprovideacostbenefitininstallationandmaintenanceofinfrastructureversusastand-aloneoffshorefarm.Michler-Cieluchetal.(2009a)andBucketal.(2008)suggestsomeotheradvantagesthatmayreducecoststomariculturefirms:.第一，也是最明显的，生物养殖内在协议的动机是在保护海域内他们的操作能力。风电场可能会为海洋生物提供安全的活动场所和基础。移动海洋生物最大的挑战是保护他们避免受到高能量的影响(Bridger&Costa-Pierce,2003)。最新在近海和风电场内发展的为海藻、贝类、鱼类提供的培植设施可能会为生物的安置节约成本。Michler-Cieluchetal.(2009a)和Bucketal.(2008)提出了其他可能会减少生物养殖公司成本的措施：Theoffshoreareaprovidesahighqualityenvironmentforculturingthelikelyfirstcandidatesforoffshoreaquaculture,withhighwaterquality,goodoxygenconditions,lesspollution,andlesseutrophicationthannearshoresites.Thissuggeststhattomeetasimilaryieldoffshoremaycostlessduetosuperiorgrowingconditions..离岸海域时海产养殖的理想场所，那里有高质量的海水，好的氧气条件，少的污染和少的富营养化。这暗示着，由于良好的环境可能会节省更多的养殖成本。Theco-useofserviceplatformsoffshoremayallowformorecost-effectivemaintenanceandservicing.Dependentonthearrangement,personnel,equipment,orvesselsmayoptionallyhaveaccesstotheserviceplatform,providingflexibilityinservicingandharvestingamongstotherpossibilities..离岸合作平台可能会允许更多的维护和运行成本。这取决于安排、人员、设备，或者小修可以利用海产收获的时候。JamesandSlaski(2006)mentionthatdirectaccesstoelectricalpowercouldallowforincreasedphotoperiodproductionandhigherlevelsofautomationandremoteoperation.James和Slaski(2006)提到那种直接的电能能够增加光周期产品、高自动化水平和远程操作的技术。Afirstinsightintothecommercialbenefitofamultiple-usescenariowithaquacultureInoffshorewindfarmswascalculatedforasuspendedmusselcultivationenterpriseasacasestudyintheGermenNorthSea(Bucketal.,2010).德国北海一个暂停的贻贝养殖企业，可作为一个案例研究，用以计算在海上风电场进行水产养殖的多种方案所获得的商业利益(Bucketal.,2010)。Thedecisiontopartnerwithmariculturefirmsmayalsobemotivatedbycostconsiderationsforwindenergyfirms.Inanoffshoresettingwheremanyusersarecompetingforspace,allowingtheconcurrentuseofawindfarmformariculturemayprovideadualbenefittowindenergyproducers.First,dependingontheformofcooperation,thewindenergyfirmmayreceivesomelevelofdirectcompensationfromthemariculturefirm.Thismaycomeintheformofshoulderingcommoncosts,orbeadirectstreamofincomeasa“rental”rate,amongstotherpossibilities.风能公司决定与海水养殖企业合作，也可能是出于成本的考虑。离岸的设置区域，是许多使用者都在争夺的空间，允许风电场与海水养殖共同使用，则为风能生产者提供了双重利益。首先，根据合作的方式，风能公司可能会收到来自海水养殖公司给予的一定程度的直接补偿。这可能以共同承担公共成本的形式，或以“租赁”及其它有可能的直接收入来源来实现。Secondly,thewindenergyfirmmayexperienceareductionofconflictwithotherusers(JamesandSlaski,2006).Anintegratedfacilitywilllikelynotallowotheruserstoenterthatspacewhichcouldjeopardizethesafeoperationofaheavilyutilizedoffshorearea(Mee,2006).Acorollarytothisisthatanintegratedfacilitycouldbeperceivedasasignofgoodfaithandcooperationbywindenergyproducersintheoftencontentioussociopoliticallandscapeofexclusionaryutilizationofoffshorecommonlyheldresources.Todate,theoffshorewindfarmoperatorshold“client”tieswiththedecision-makers,inwhichotherusersandtheirinterestsarenotincludedindevelopmentconsiderations.Byfindingsolutionswhichcouldbeperceivedas“win-win”formultiplestakeholdersintheoffshoresetting,thewindenergyoperatormayimprovetheirpublicperception(Gee,2010).Inturnthismayhavethepositiveeconomicimpactofreducingtheirpoliticalriskandpotentiallytheircostoffinancingandinsurancepremiums.其次，风能公司与其他使用者产生的冲突可能会减少(JamesandSlaski,2006)。一个综合的设施将可能不会允许其他使用者进入这个空间，因为这可能会危及大量利用的海域的安全运作(Mee,2006)。风能设备这种持有海洋普遍的资源利用率的社会政治景观，经常会引起争议，由风能生产者建设综合海洋设施，则可以视为真诚合作的信号和标志，而这也是一个必然的结果。至目前为止，海上风电场的运营商与合作主体仅持有“客户”关系，并不涵盖合作主体的利益。寻找可能被离岸设施中多元利益主体视为“双赢”的解决方案，风能运营商可能得以提高他们的公众观感(Gee,2010)。因此，这可能减少他们的政治风险和潜在的融资成本和保险费，具有积极的经济影响，Thisisnottosuggestthatthereisonlyupsideforawindenergyfirmincollaborating.Itispossiblethattheymayexperienceareductioninflexibilitytoengageininfrastructureprojectsasaresultofinflexiblegrowingseasonsonthemaricultureside(Mee,2006).Takingonmariculturetotheexclusionofshipping,wildharvestfisheries,orotherinterestsmaystillresultinalienationandpoliticalriskifexcludedpartiesarenotgrantedconcessionselsewhere.Itmayalsobethecasethatthetransactioncostofimplementingajointagreementmaybehighenoughtodiscourageenteringintosuchanagreement.Flexibilityinchangingthecollaborativearrangementasproductionstrategiesareadaptedmayencouragecostsavings(GrandoriandSoda,1995),butmayalsobemorecostlytoinitiallybuildintotheagreement.这并不表示风能公司处于合作的上方。相反，风能公司在从事基础设施项目时的灵活度可能会减小，这是海洋生物养殖方面不可改变的生长期的所导致的结果(Mee,2006)。海洋生物养殖会排除航运、野生渔业，或其他利益，如果不给予这些补排除的利益主体其它位置，可能会导致异化和政治风险。这也可能是联合协议的交易成本可能会高到足以阻止达成这样一个协议的情况。改变作为生产策略的合作安排，适合用于鼓励节约成本(GrandoriandSoda,1995)，但也可能使协议最初建成的部分费用更为昂贵。Themotivationscitedabovearedescriptiveinnatureanddonotendeavourtomodelorquantifytheinteractionsorthenominalvaluesofthesefactors.Asasetofpotentialcostsavingsfromcomplementaryproductionactivities,theymakeacaseforexploringadditionalmotivationsforcollaboration.上面列举的情况是描述性的，不力求模型或量化这些因素的相互作用或标称值。作为一套辅助生产活动的潜在的成本节约设施，他们提出了一个充分的理由以寻求额外的合作动机。4.1.2Organisationalcoordination组织协调Research研究GrandoriandSoda(1995)pointoutthatcollaborationisoftenmotivatedbyreductionsingovernancecostsandotherfactorsuniquetotheindustriesortothecontextinwhichtheagreementismade.Thissectionwillfirstdescribepredictorsfromtheliteraturewhichmaysupportorimpedecollaboration,thenwilladdressrelatedthemesfromeachindustry.Grandori和Soda(1995)指出，这种合作往往是出于行业所独有的或协议范围中减少治理成本及其它因素的考虑。本节将首先从文献中描述可以支持或阻碍企业协作的预测因素，然后解决每个行业的相关主题。Therehasbeenextensiveresearchintothepre-agreementpredictorsofcollaboration,andtheongoingsuccessofthiscollaboration.Thesecanberelatedtotheroleoftherespectiveassetportfolio.Inthiscontextofconsiderablenaturalresourcedependency,thecapitalassets(natural,physical,human,financialandsocialcapital),theactivities,andtheaccesstothese(mediatedbyinstitutionsandsocialrelations)determinetheincomeandthe“livelihoodplatform”ofusersofnaturalresources(Niehof,2004;Bondetal.,2007).Capitalassetsarenotonlyresourcesthatpeopleuseinbuildinglivelihoods,theyareassetsthatgivethemthecapabilitytobeandtoact(Badjeck,2008).目前已经有大量关于预测合作前协议及合作持续成功的研究。这些与各自的资产组合有关。在这种情况下，使用者对重要自然资源的依赖、固定资产（自然、物理、人力、金融和社会资本）的拥有、对自然资源的行为活动及使用权（这些都由体系和社会关系调解）决定了他们的收入和“民生平台”(Niehof,2004;Bondetal.,2007)。资本资产不仅仅是人们用来构建生计的资源，也是能赋予人们能力并行动的资产(Badjeck,2008)。Inparticular,asset-specificityisthoughttobeanimportantpredictorofwhetherornotaninter-firmcollaborationwillemerge(Williamson,1981;GrandoriandSoda,1995).Assetspecificityisdefinedastheextenttowhichtheinvestmentsmadetosupportaparticulartransactionhaveahighervaluethantheywouldhaveiftheywereredeployedforanyotherpurpose(McGuinness,1994).Inasuccessfulagreement,bilaterallyheldassetsandrightswouldbeclearlyspecified,aswellasthespecificconditionsunderwhichtheagreementcouldtakeplace.Thisshouldpreventanopportunisticchangeofstrategybyeitherparty.尤其是，资产专用性被认为是是否会出现企业间的合作的一个重要的预测(Williamson,1981;GrandoriandSoda,1995)。资产专用性被定义为所作的投资能支持一个特定的交易创造更高的价值，这比因任何其它目的而重新部署所可能产生的价值更高(McGuinness,1994)。在一个成功的协议，双边持有的资产和权利是明确规定的，对特定条件下该协议可能发生的资产和权利也如此。这应该能防止任何一方在策略上投机取巧的变化。Ofspecialimportanceinthiscaseissite-specificity.Themariculturefirmisspecificallylookingtogaintherighttoproduceatanoffshorewindenergysite;thisisthemostessentialpiecetoanagreement.Asuccessfulagreementmustconveysecureaccesstotheserightsforemost,andalsoclearlydelineateanyotherjointassetsorrights.InsomeareasoftheNorthSeawheresuitablealternativesitesformariculturearedifficulttofind,thismaybeevenmoreimportant.Contractsshouldbecomprehensiveenoughtoavoidcreatinganincentivestructurewhichundercutstheinitialreasonsforcooperation.Thecomplexityofthejointagreementisalsoaffectedbyadditionalinterdependencieswhichrefinethenatureoftheassetsexchanged(Obsorn&Baughn,1990,Bondetal.,2007).在这种情况下，特别重要的是位置特异性。海水养殖公司特别希望获得在海上风能位置上生产的权利，这也是协议中最重要的一部分。一个成功的协议首先必须传达能安全使用这些权利，同时也明确描述其它任何共同的资产或权利。在北海的一些区域，很难找到合适的能替代海洋生物养殖的位置，这可能是更重要的。合同应该是全面的，足以避免创造一个激励结构和削弱合作的初始原因。联合协议的复杂性也受到额外的相互依存关系的影响，这可以完善自然资产的交换。Thedegreeofdifferentiationbetweenfirmsisastrongpredictorofinter-firmcoordination.Thisincludesthedistanceamongtheobjectivesandorientationsofthesefirms,aswellaspsychologicaldifferencesincognitiveandemotionalprocesses.Itisinterestingtonotethatwhileanexcessivedegreeofdifferentiationinthisregardhasbeenidentifiedasacauseofbureaucraticfailureanddisintegrationoffirmsintheliterature,diversityofresourcescontrolledbythecollaboratingpartiesisconsideredasuccessfulpredictorofcooperation(GrandoriandSoda,1995).Williamson(1981)statedthat“therearesomanydifferenttypesoforganisationsbecausetransactionsdiffersogreatlyandefficiencyisonlyrealizedifgovernancestructuresaretailoredtothespecificneedsofeachtypeoftransaction.”企业之间的分化程度，是企业间协调的一个强有力的预测器。这包括这些企业目标和取向之间的距离，以及认知和情感过程中的心理差异。有趣的是，这方面的过度分化程度在文献中被视为官僚失败公司解体的原因，合作各方所控制的资源的多样性被认为是一个合作成功的预测器(GrandoriandSoda,1995)。威廉姆森（1981）指出：“之所以有这么多不同类型的组织，是因为交易的差异如此之大，只有采用每种类型的交易根据特定需求量身定做的治理机构，效益才能实现。”Evenmore,Granovetter(1985)arguesthatalleconomicrelationsbetweenfirmsoccurinabroadersocialcontext,andthis“embeddedness”playsastronghandinmarketoutcomes.Socialandmarketconditionsatthetimeofagreementmaychangethenatureoftheagreementorprecludethepossibilityaltogether.Thenextsectionwilldiscussthecontextandcommonviewsheldbytheprimarilyaffectedstakeholders.更有甚者，格兰诺维特（1985）认为，在更广阔的社会背景下，企业之间发生的所有经济关系，这种“嵌入”在市场结果中扮演了一个强有力的推手。当时的协议中社会及市场状况可能会改变协议的性质，或者可以排除这种可能性。下一节将讨论背景和主要受影响的利益相关者的共同看法。ContextandViews背景和看法ThemaricultureindustryintheNorthSeahashistoricallybeenconcentratedentirelyinthenearshoreareas.Increasingcompetitionfromshipping,energyfacilities,andconservationinitiativeshasaddedtopressurefromwildharvestfisheriestoconstrainorreducetheavailableareaforcultivation(CWSS,2002;Michler-Cieluchetal.,2009b).OfthecountriespoisedtomakemajorcommitmentsintheneartermtooffshorewindenergyintheNorthSea,thereisnotaparticularlystrongmariculturesector.ThatisthecaseinEngland,whichhasexperiencedsignificantoffshorewinddevelopmentalready,thoughthereisawell-developedsalmonrearingindustryinScotland.Currently,nosignificantmaricultureoperationsarebeingconductedoutsideof12nauticalmilesinGermany(Michler-Cieluchetal.,2009a),andthereisconsiderabledoubtaboutwhetherappropriateequipmentandtechnologyisavailabletodoso(Mee,2006).Therehasbeensomeconsolidationacrosstheindustryinthisarea,especiallyamongthesalmonproducers(JamesandSlasksi,2006),butthesebusinesseshavearelativelysmallcapitalizationincomparisontowindenergydevelopers.历来北海海洋生物养殖业完全集中在近岸地区。航运及能源设施的竞争日益激烈，已经采取减少野生渔业的压力、限制或减少可用养殖面积的保护措施(CWSS,2002;Michler-Cieluchetal.,2009b)。在短期内，在北海海上风能的国家，没有一个特别强的海水养殖业。而英国则已经经历了显着的海上风电发展，其中苏格兰有一个发达的鲑鱼养殖行业。目前，德国12海里以外并没有明显的海水养殖业(Michler-Cieluchetal.,2009a)，对其