经济学的挑战

TheCentralProblemofScarcity（資源稀少性的問題）Whycan’twehaveeverythingwewant?（你可以擁有一切否?)Ourwantsexceed

ourresources.(人類的欲望超過自己的有限資源）Economics（經濟學）Thestudyofhowbesttoallocatescarceresourcesamongcompetinguses.（如何將有限的資源，最有效的分配在所有競爭的使用目的上）OpportunityCost（機會成本）Themostdesiredgoodsandservicesthatareforegoneinordertoobtainsomethingelse.（為了得到某些東西，必須放棄最想要的財貨或勞務）FactorofProduction（生產要素）Resourceinputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices.（生產財貨及勞務所使用的資源投入）Land,labor,capital,andentrepreneurship.（土地（含自然資源）、勞力、資本及管理）Scarcity（稀少性）Lackofavailableresourcestosatisfyalldesiredusesofthoseresources.（可利用的資源，無法來滿足全部想要的欲望）ThreeBasicEconomicQuestions（基本的問題）WHATtoproduce（生產什麼）HOWtoproduce（如何生產）FORWHOMtoproduce（如何分配）WhattoProduce（生產什麼）Ourwantsexceedresources.（欲望超過可用的資源）Wehavetodecidewhatwewantmost.（必須決定最想要的是什麼）Wehavetosacrificelessdesiredactivitiesandgoods.（犧牲次要的東西)討論：農民、企業家、政府ProductionPossibilities

(生產可能性)Howmuchwecouldproducedependsonhowmanyresourcesareavailable.Land–includingnaturalresourcesLabor–numberandskillsofworkersCapital–machinery,buildings,networksEntrepreneurship–skillincreatingproducts,services,andprocessesProductionPossibilitiesProductionpossibilities–Thealternativecombinationsofgoodsandservicesthatcouldbeproducedinagiventimeperiodwithallavailableresourcesandtechnology.（在可用的科技及資源下，在一定的時間內，可能用來生產的財貨及勞務的組合）ProductionPossibilitiesCurveCDEOUTPUTOFCONSUMERGOODS(unitsperyear)OUTPUTOFMILITARYGOODS(unitsperyear)ABOXFGLimitedresourcesnecessitatechoicesaboutWHATtoproduce.MaximumoutputofasinglegoodMaximumoutputofasinglegoodMaximumcombinationofgoodsSpecificProductionPossibilitiesTheChoicesNationsMakeAnationmustchoosewhattodowithitsscarceresourcesduringwarorperiodsofmilitarybuildup.Producemilitarygoodsorconsumergoods?MilitaryShareofTotalU.S.Output048121620242832364019401945195019551960196519701975198019851990199520002003EndofColdWarReaganbuildupVietnamWarKoreanWarWorldWarIIPeaceDividendsThepotentialincreaseinnonmilitaryoutputduetoreductionsinmilitaryspending.TheCostofWarRC2M2OOUTPUTOFCONSUMERGOODS(unitsperyear)OUTPUTOFMILITARYGOODS(unitsperyear)ChangingthemixofoutputMilitarybuilddownSM1PeacedividendC1PercentofOutputAllocatedtoMilitary20151050Mexico0.5PercentofOutputAllocatedtoMilitaryJapan1.0Canada1.2Germany1.5S.Korea2.8USA3.1India2.5China2.3Iraq7.6N.Korea14.3Bosnia9.5

TheBestPossibleMixThereisonlyonebestpossible(optimal)mixofoutputatanygiventime.Thefirsteconomicgoalofanysocietyistoproducethatoptimalmixofoutput.EconomicGrowth（經濟成長）Anincreaseinoutput(realGDP).（實質國內生產毛額GDP的成長）Anexpansionofproductionpossibilities.（生產可能曲線的擴張）Investment（投資）Expenditureson(productionof)newplantandequipment(capital)inagiventimeperiod,pluschangesinbusinessinventories.EconomicGrowth（經濟成長）2000productionpossibilities1900productionpossibilitiesProductionpossibilitiesincreaseswithmoreresourcesandtechnologyOUTPUTOFCONSUMERGOODS(unitsperyear)OUTPUTOFMILITARYGOODS(unitsperyear)HOWtoProduce（如何生產）Thesecondeconomicgoalforeverysocietyistofindanoptimalmethodofproducinggoodsandservices.FORWHOMtoProduce（如何分配）Theforwhomquestionfocusesonhowaneconomy’soutputisdistributedacrossmembersofsociety.（產出如何分配到每一個社會的成員）FORWHOMtoProduceTheeconomicpiecanbedividedinseveralways.Distributionbasedonproductivecontributions.（生產力的貢獻者）Distributionbasedonneed.（需要者）Somecombinationofproductivecontributionsandneed.（以上兩者）Incentives（誘因）Distributionbasedonneedratherthanworkeffortmayresultinlessworkeffort.（以需要作分配，導致較不努力）Thereislessoutputtodistribute.（產出減少）Thesizeofthepiemaygetsmaller.（可分配的大餅減少了）TheMechanismsofChoice（消費者如何作選擇）Thereareconflictsandtradeoffswitheverychoice.(衝突及犧牲)ThePoliticalProcess(政治上的過程)Manybasiceconomicdecisionsaremadethroughthepoliticalprocess.TheMarketMechanism

(市場機能)Theuseofmarketpricesandsalestosignaldesiredoutputs(orresourceallocations).TheMarketMechanismMarketsalesandpricessendasignaltoproducersaboutwhatmixofoutputconsumerswant.TheMarketMechanismLaissezfaireisthedoctrineof“leaveitalone,”ornoninterventionbygovernmentinthemarketmechanism.CentralPlanningThegovernmentdecideswhatgoodsareproduced,atwhatpricestheyaresold,andwhogetsthem.MixedEconomiesEconomiesthatusebothmarketandnon-marketsignalstoallocategoodsandresources.UndesirableChoicesMarketsdon’talwaysproducetherightamountofoutput.MarketFailureAnimperfectioninthemarketmechanismthatpreventsoptimaloutcomes.TheWrongMixofOutputThemarketmightproducetoomuchofsomeproductsandtoolittleofotherproducts.Themarketmightfailtomakefulluseoftheeconomy’sresources(recessions).MarketFailureM(marketoutcome)

N(recession)X(optimalmix)OOUTPUTOFCONSUMERGOODS(unitsperyear)OUTPUTOFMILITARYGOODS(unitsperyear)ThemarketfailswhenitproducesanonoptimalmixofoutputTooMuchPollutionMarketsmightselectthewrongchoiceofHOWtoproduce.Mayresultinvariousformsofpollution.Examplesincludeairandwaterpollution.ExternalitiesCosts(orbenefits)ofamarketactivitybornebyathirdparty.Thedifferencebetweenthesocialandprivatecosts(orbenefits)ofamarketactivity.TooMuchPovertyMarketsmightfailtodistributegoodsandservicesinthebestpossibleway.Taxesandincometransfersmaybeusedtoreslicetheeconomicpie.GovernmentFailureGovernmentinterventionthatfailstoimproveeconomicoutcomes.GovernmentwillnotnecessarilyofferbetteranswerstotheWHAT,HOW,andFORWHOMquestions.GovernmentFailureGovernmentinterventionmightworsenthemixofoutput.Itmightevenreducethetotalamountofoutputthroughover-regulation.GovernmentFailureThereisnoguaranteethatthevisiblehandofgovernmentwillbeanycleanerthantheinvisiblehandofthemarketplace.GovernmentFailureM(marketoutcome)

G1G2X(optimalmix)OOUTPUTOFCONSUMERGOODS(unitsperyear)OUTPUTOFMILITARYGOODS(unitsperyear)Governmentinterventiondoesn’talwaysimproveeconomicoutcomesWhatEconomicsIsAllAboutAcombinationofmarketsignalsandgovernmentinterventionsforgebetteranswerstotheWHAT,HOW,andFORWHOMquestions.WhatEconomicsIsAllAboutThefirstgoalofeconomictheoryistohelpsocietyfindbetteranswerstothethreebasicquestions.WhatEconomicsIsAllAboutThesecondgoalofeconomictheoryistopredicthowchangesingovernmentpolicyormarketinstitutionswillaffecteconomicoutcomes.Macrovs.MicroMacroeconomicsisthestudyofaggregateeconomicbehavior,oftheeconomyasawhole.Macrovs.MicroMicroeconomicsisthestudyofindividualbehaviorintheeconomy,ofthecomponentsofthelargereconomy.Theoryvs.RealityRealityistoocomplextodescribeandexplaininonecourse.Theoryvs.RealityEconomistsfocusonbasicrelationshipsandusethesetopredicteconomiceventsandformulateeconomicpolicies.CeterisParibusTheassumptionofnothingelsechanging.Politicsvs.EconomicsEconomictheorycanmakesignificantcontributionstopolicyformulation.Allpolicydecisionsareultimatelyamixofpoliticsandeconomictheory.ModestExpectationsThegoalsofthiscoursearemodest:Developareasonableperspectiveofeconomicbehavior.Acquireanunderstandingofbasicprinciples.Appendix:UsingGraphsGraphsillustratetherelationshipbetweentwovariables.RelationshipofGradesto

StudyTimeSlopesSlopeshowstherelationshipbetweenchangesinstudytimeandchangesingrade-pointaverage.012345678910111213141516171819200.51.52.53.51.0gradepointNMSTUDYTIME(hoursperweek)GRADE-POINTAVERAGE1.0(=D)0(=F)2.0(=C)3.0(=B)4.0(=A)4hoursofstudytimeRelationshipofGradesto

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