耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记

January17,2007

ProfessorPaulBloom:I'dliketowelcomepeopletothiscourse,

IntroductiontoPsychology.MynameisDr.PaulBloom.I'mprofessorof

thiscourse.Andwhatthisisgoingtobeisacomprehensiveintroduction

tothestudyofthehumanmind.So,wearegoingtocoveravery,very

widerangeoftopicsincludingbrains,children,language,sex,memory,

madness,disgust,racismandlove,andmanyothers.We'regoingtotalk

aboutthingsliketheproperexplanationfordifferencesbetweenmenand

women;thequestionofwhetheranimalscanlearnlanguage;thepuzzleof

whatgrossesusout;theproblemofwhysomeofuseattoomuchandwhat

wecoulddotostop;thequestionofwhypeoplegocrazyingroups;research

intowhetheryoucouldtrustyourchildhoodmemories;researchintowhy

someofusgetdepressedandothersdon，t.

Thestyleofthisisthere'11betwolecturesaweek,aswellascourse

readings.Now,todowellinthecourse,youhavetoattendboththe

lecturesanddothereadings.Therewillbesomeoverlap.Insomecases,

thelectureswillbequitelinkedtothereadings.Buttherewillbesome

partsofthereadingsthatwillnotfindtheirwayintothelectures,and

somelectures一一someentirelecturesthatwillnotconnectatalltothe

readings.So,topursuethiscourseproperlyyouhavetodoboth.What

thismeansisthatifyoumissaclassyouneedtogetnotes,andsoyou

shouldgetthemfromafriendorfromthepersonsittingnexttoyou.The

slidesaregoingtobemadeavailableonline.So,oneofthethingsyou

don，thavetodoisyoudon，thavetowritethisdown.Youtakenotesany

wayyouchoose,butifyoudon，tgetanythingonthereit，11beavailable

online.I'mgoingtopostitinaformatwhichwillbeblackandwhite

andeasytoprintoutsoyoudon，thavetoworryaboutthis.Butagain,

attendingtotheslidesisnotasubstituteforattendingclass.

There，satextbook,PeterGray'sPsychology,5thedition,andthere，salso

acollectionofshortreadings,TheNortonReadereditedbyGaryMarcus.

It'sanexcellenttextbook;it'sanexcellentcollection,andyoushould

getthemboth.They*reavailableatLabyrinthbookstoreonYorkStreet

oryougetthemonline.IshouldnotethatlasttimeItaughtthecourse

IusedtheMarcusReader,andwhenProfessorMarvinChuntaughthiscourse

lastsemesterheusedPeterGray's5theditiontextbook.So,theremaybe

alotofusedcopiesfloatingaround.Youshouldfeelfreetotrytoget

oneofthose.

Theevaluationgoeslikethis.ThereisaMidtermandthereisaFinal.

TheFinalwillnotbeheldintheexamperiod,becauseIliketotakelong

vacations.Itwillbeheldthelastdayofclass.Theexamswillbemultiple

choiceandshortanswer,fillintheblank,thatsortofthing.Priorto

theexamsIwillpostpreviousexamsonline,soyouhaveafeelingfor

howtheseexamsworkandsoon.Therewillalsobereviewsessions.

Startingatthebeginningofthethirdweekofclass-thatisnotnext

weekbuttheweekafter-oneachMondayI'mgoingtoputupabrief

questionorsetofquestions,whichyouhavetoanswerandyouranswers

needtobesenttoyourteachingfellow.Andyou'11begivenateaching

fellow,assignedone,byFriday.Thisisnotmeanttobedifficult.It's

notmeanttobemorethanfive,tenminutesofwork,butthepointofthe

question一一15,20minutesofwork,butthepointofthequestionisto

motivatepeopletokeepupwiththematerialanddothereadings.These

questionswillbemarkedpass,fail.Iexpectmosteverybodycouldpass

allofthequestionsbutit'sjusttokeepyouontrackandkeepyougoing.

Thereisabookreview,ashortbookreview,tobewrittentowardsnear

theendoftheclass.V11givedetailsaboutthatlateroninthesemester.

Andthere'salsoanexperimentalparticipationrequirement,andnextweek

r11handoutapieceofpaperdescribingtherequirement.Thepointof

therequirementistogiveyouallexperienceactuallyseeingwhat

psychologicalresearchisaboutaswellastogiveushundredsofsubjects

todoourexperimentson.

Theissuesometimescomesupastohowtodowellinthecourse.Here，s

howtodowell.Attendalltheclasses.Keepupwiththereadings.Ideally,

keepupwiththereadingsbeforeyoucometoclass.AndonethingIwould

stronglysuggestistoformsomesortofstudygroups,eitherformally

orinformally.Havepeopleyoucouldtalktowhenthe-priortotheexams

or一一she'spattingsomebodynexttoher.Ihopeyouknowhim.Andinfact,

whatrmgoingtodo,notthisclassbecauseit'sshoppingperiod.Idon，t

knowwho'scomingnextclass,orwhatbutr11setupafewminutesprior,

atthebeginningoftheclass,forpeoplejusttointroducethemselves

tothepersonnexttothemsotheyhavesomesortofresourceintheclass.

Now,thisisalargeclass,andifyoudon，tdoanythingaboutit,itcan

beveryanonymous.Andsomeofyoumaychoosetopursueitthatwayand

that'stotallyfine.ButwhatIwouldsuggestyoudoisestablishsome

contactwithus,eitherwithmeorwithanyoftheteachingfellows,and

r11introducetheteachingfellowssometimenextweek.Youcouldtalk

tousatthebeginningorattheendofclass.Unlesstherearespecial

circumstances,Ialwaystrytocomeatleasttenminutesearly,andIam

willingtostaylatetotalktopeople.Youcouldcomebyduringmyoffice

hours,whichareonthesyllabus,andyoucouldsendmee-mailandset

upanappointment.I'mverywillingtotalktostudentsaboutintellectual

ideas,aboutcourseproblemsandsoon.Andifyouseemeatsomepoint

justoncampus,youcouldintroduceyourselfandI'dliketomeetpeople

fromthisclass.So,again,Iwanttostressyouhavetheoptionofstaying

anonymousinthisclass,butyoualsohavetheoptionofseekingoutand

makingsomesortofcontactwithus.Okay.That，stheformalstuffofthe

course.

What'sthiscourseabout?Unlikealotofothercourses,somepeoplecome

toIntroPsychologywithsomeunusualmotivations.Maybeyou，recrazyand

hopetobecomelesscrazy[laugher].Maybeyouwanttolearnhowtostudy

better,improveyoursexlife,interpretyourdreams,andwinfriendsand

influencepeople[laugher].Thosearenotnecessarilybadreasonstotake

thiscourseand,withtheexceptionofthesexpart,thiscoursemight

actuallyhelpyououtwithsomeofthesethings.Thestudyofscientific

psychologyhasalotofinsightsofrealworldrelevancetorealproblems

thatwefaceinoureverydaylives.AndI'mgoingtotry--andwhenthese

issuescomeup-I'mgoingtotrytostressthemandmakeyoutrytothink

abouttheextenttowhichthelaboratoryresearchV11betalkingabout

canaffectyoureverydaylife:howyoustudy,howyouinteractwithpeople,

howyoumighttrytopersuadesomebodyofsomethingelse,whatsortof

therapyworksbestforyou.Butthegeneralgoalsofthiscourseare

actuallyIthinkevenmoreinterestingthanthat.

WhatIwanttodoisprovideastateoftheartintroductiontothemost

importanttopicthatthereis:us.Howthehumanmindworks,howwethink,

whatmakesuswhatweare.Andwe'11beapproachingthisfromarangeof

directions.So,traditionally,psychologyisoftenbrokenupintothe

following-intofivesub-areas:Neuroscience,whichisthestudyofthe

mindbylookingatthebrain;developmental,whichistheareawhichI

focusmostlyon,whichistryingtolearnabouthowpeopledevelopand

growandlearn;cognitive,whichistheonetermofthefivethatmight

beunfamiliartosomeofyou,butitreferstoasortofcomputational

approachtostudyingthemind,oftenviewingthemindonanalogywitha

computerandlookingathowpeopledothingslikeunderstandlanguage,

recognizeobjects,playgames,andsoon.Thereissocial,whichisthe

studyofhowpeopleactingroups,howpeopleactwithotherpeople.And

thereisclinical,whichismaybetheaspectofpsychologythatpeople

thinkofimmediatelywhentheyhearpsychology,whichisthestudyof

mentalhealthandmentalillness.Andwe'11becoveringallofthoseareas.

We'11alsobecoveringasetofrelatedareas.Iamconvincedthatyou

cannotstudythemindsolelybylookingatthedisciplineofpsychology.

Thedisciplineofpsychologyspillsovertoissuesofhowthemindhas

evolved.Economicsandgametheoryarenowessentialtoolsfor

understandinghumanthoughtandhumanbehavior-thoseissuesconnecting

tophilosophy,computerscience,anthropology,literature,theology,and

many,manyotherdomains.So,thiscoursewillbewideranginginthat

sense.

AtthispointI'vebeenspeakingingeneralitiessoIwanttoclosethis

introductoryclassbygivingfiveexamplesofthesortsoftopicswe'11

becovering.AndI’11startwiththetopicthatwe'11becoveringnext

weekonMonday-thebrain.Thisisabrain.Infact,it，saspecific

person，sbrain,andwhat'sinterestingaboutthebrainisthatlittle

whitemarkthere.It'sherbrain.It'sTerriSchiavo,sbrain.You

recognizehermorefrompictureslikethat.Andwhatacaselikethis,

wheresomebodyisinacoma,iswithoutconsciousnessasaresultofdamage

tothebrain,isastarkillustrationofthephysicalnatureofmental

life.Thephysicalbasisforeverythingthatwenormallyholddear,like

freewill,consciousness,moralityandemotions,andthat'swhatwe'11

beginthecoursewith,talkingabouthowaphysicalthingcangiverise

tomentallife.

We'11talkalotaboutchildren.Thisisactuallyaspecificchild.It's

myson,Zachary,myyoungerson,dressedupasSpider-Man,butitis

Halloween.No,it'snotHalloween.Oh.Well,there，smoretosayabout

that[laughter].IstudychilddevelopmentforalivingandI'minterested

inseveralquestions.So,onequestionisjustthequestionofdevelopment.

EverybodyinthisroomcanspeakandunderstandEnglish.Everybodyinthis

roomhassomeunderstandingofhowtheworldworks,howphysicalthings

behave.Everybodyinthisroomhassomeunderstandingofotherpeople,

andhowpeoplebehave.Andthequestionthatpreoccupiesdevelopmental

psychologistsishowdowecometohavethisknowledge,andinparticular,

howmuchofitishard-wired,built-in,innate.Andhowmuchofitisthe

productofculture,oflanguage,ofschooling?Anddevelopmental

psychologistsusemanyingeniousmethodstotrytopulltheseapartand

trytofigureoutwhatarethebasiccomponentsofhumannature.

There，salsothequestionofcontinuity.TowhatextentisZachary,at

thatage,goingtobethatwayforever?Towhatextentisyourfatesealed?

Towhatextentcould-ifIweretomeetyouwhenyouwerefiveyearsold

Icoulddescribethewayyouarenow?ThepoetWilliamWordsworthwrote,

“Thechildisfathertotheman,〃andwhatthismeansisthatyoucansee

withineverychildtheadultheorshewillbecome.Wewilllookandask

thequestionwhetherthisistrue.Isittrueforyourpersonality?Is

ittrueforyourinterests?Isittrueforyourintelligence?

Anotherquestionhavingtodowithdevelopmentiswhatmakesustheway

weare?We'redifferentinalotofways.Thepeopleinthisroomdiffer

accordingtotheirtasteinfood.TheydifferaccordingtotheirIQs;

whetherthey'reaggressiveorshy;whetherthey'reattractedtomales,

females,bothorneither;whethertheyaregoodatmusic;whetherthey

arepoliticallyliberalorconservative.Whyarewedifferent?What，sthe

explanationforwhywe'redifferent?Andagain,thiscouldbetranslated

intermsofaquestionofgenesandenvironment.Towhatextentarethings

theresultofthegeneswepossess?Towhatextentareourindividual

naturestheresultofhowwewereraised?Andtowhatextentaretheybest

explainedintermsofaninteraction?Onecommontheory,forinstance,

isthatweareshapedbyourparents.Thiswasbestsummarizedmost

famouslybytheBritishpoetPhilipLarkinwhowrote,

Theymessyouup,yourmumanddad.

Theymaynotmeantobuttheydo.

Theyfillyouwiththefaultstheyhad

Andaddsomeextrajustforyou.

Isheright?It'sverycontroversial.You-It'sbeenaseriesof-ahuge

controversyinthepopularculturetotheextentofwhichparentsmatter

andthisisanissuewhichwillpreoccupyusformuchofthecourse.

Adifferentquestion:Whatmakessomebodyattractive?Andthiscanbe

askedatallsortsoflevelsbutasimpleleveliswhatmakesforapretty

face?So,theseare,accordingtoratings,veryattractivefaces.They

arenotthefacesofrealpeople.What'sonthescreenarecomputer

generatedfacesofaCaucasianmaleandaCaucasianfemalewhodon'texist

intherealworld.Butthroughusingthissortofcomputergeneration,

andthenaskingpeoplewhattheythinkofthisface,whattheythinkof

thatface,scientistshavecometosomesenseastowhatreallymakesa

faceattractive,bothwithinculturesandacrosscultures.Andthat，s

somethingwhichwe'regoingtodevotesometimetowhenwetalkabout

socialbehavior,andinparticular,whenwetalkaboutsex.Notall

attractiveness,notallbeautyofcourse,islinkedtosex.So,pandas

forinstance,likethispanda,arenotoriouslycute,andIdon，thave

anythingtosayaboutitreally.It'sjustacutepicture[laughter].

Moralityisextremelycentraltoourlives,andadeepquestion,which

wewillstrugglewiththroughoutmostofthecourse,isthequestionof

goodandevil,evilandgood.Thesethreepicturesexemplifydifferent

sortsofevil.Whatyoucouldcallinstitutionalevilbysomebodybehaving

cruellytowardsomebodyelse,perhapsnotduetomalicebutbecauseof

thesituationthatshe'sin.IthaspictureofOsamabinLaden,amass

murdererordrivenbypoliticalcause?Andthenthere，sthisguyonthe

bottom.Anybodyknowwhoheis?TedBundy.Whogotthat?Filmthatman

[laughter].No.TedBundy,exactly,andthat，sbeforewegetintothe

technicalstufflikecrazy-evil,andwe'regoingtohavetocometoterms

withwhysomepeoplearelikethat.Andagain,thesamesituationcomes

up.Isitpartofyournaturetobegoodorbadorisitlargelydueto

thesituationthatyoufallin?Andthere'salotofsomequitespectacular

experimentsthattrytoteasethatapart.

Ifwe'regoingtotalkaboutevil,weshouldalsotalkaboutgood.These

arepicturesoftwonotoriouslygoodmen,OskarSchindlerandPaul

Rusesabagina,eachwhoatdifferenttimesinhistorysavedthelivesof

many,manypeopleatgreatrisktothemselves.SchindlerintheHolocaust,

andthentheotherguy,in-andIcan，tpronouncehisname-Rusesabagina,

inRwanda.Andtheybothhadrealgoodmoviesmadeaboutthem.Butwhat's

interestingwiththesecasesisyoucouldn，thavepredictedaheadoftime

thattheywouldbeheroes.Andonepersonalissuewithinanyofusiswhat

wouldwedoinsuchsituations?

Finally,throughoutthiscoursewewilldiscussmentalillness.Now,

towardstheendoftheclassIwanttodevoteafullweektodiscussing

majordisorderslikedepressionandanxiety,becauseoftheirprofound

socialimportance.Suchdisordersarereasonablycommonincollege

students.Manypeopleinthisroomarecurrentlysufferingfromamood

disorder,ananxietydisorderorboth,andIwon，taskforashowofhands

butIknowalotofpeopleinthisroomareonsomeformofmedication

forthisdisorder.Andwe'11discussthecurrentresearchandwhypeople

getthesedisordersandwhat'sthebestwaytomakethembetter.

ButIalsohaveaweaknessforthelesscommonmentaldisordersthatI

thinktellussomethingreallyinterestingaboutmentallife.So,when

wetalkaboutmemory,forinstance,we，11talkaboutdisordersinmemory,

includingsomedisordersthatkeepyoufromformingnewmemoriesaswell

asdisordersofamnesiawhereyouforgetthepast.Andtheseare

extraordinarilyinterestingforallsortsofreasons.Earlyinthecourse,

infactIthinknextweek,wewilldiscuss,no,lateroninthecourse,

inthemiddleofthesemester,wewilldiscussanamazingcaseofPhineas

Gage.

PhineasGagewasaconstructionworkerabout100yearsago.Duetoan

explosion,ametalpipewentthroughhisheadlikeso.Miraculously,he

wasnotkilled.Infact,hisfriends-itwentthroughhishead,

went一一endedup100feetaway,coveredwithbrainsandblood.AndPhineas

Gagesatdownandwent,〃uh,oh.〃Andthenonthewaytothehospitalthey

stoppedbyapubtohavesomecider.Hewasnotblind,hewasnotdeaf,

hewasnotretarded,butsomethingelsehappenedtohim.Helosthissense

ofrightandwrong.Helosthiscontrol.Heusedtobeahard-workingfamily

man.Aftertheaccidenthelostallofthat.Hecouldn，tholdajob.He

couldn，tstayfaithfultohiswife.Hecouldn，tspeakforfiveminutes

withoutcursing.Hegotintofights.Hegotintobrawls.Hegotdrunk.

Helosthiscontrol.Heendeduponacircussideshowtravelingthrough

thecountrywiththebigsteelpipethatwentthroughhishead.Andthis

isagainanextraordinaryexampleofhowthebraincangiverisetothe

mind,andhowthingsthatgowrongwiththebraincanaffectyouina

seriousway.

We'11discusscasesofmultiplepersonalitydisorder,wherepeoplehave

morethanonepersonality.Andalso,discussthedebateoverwhethersuch

casesaretrueornot;whethertheycouldbetakenasarealphenomena

oramade-upphenomena,whichis一一thereisamatterofalotofcontroversy.

Andthen,we'11evendiscusssomerarercaseslikeCapgrassyndrome.

Capgrassyndromeistypically-there，shundredsofcases,notmany-

hundredsofcases.It'stypicallytheresultofsomesortofstroke,and

whathappenstoyouisveryspecific.Youdevelopaparticulardelusion,

likeit'sgettingdark[lightsdimintheroom,laughterfollows].And

thedelusionisthatthepeopleyoulovethemosthavebeenreplaced.

They'vebeenreplacedbyaliensorrobots[lightsgoon]-thankyou-

byMartians,byCIAagents,bytrainedactorsandactresses.Butthe

people-Buttheideais,thepeopleyoucareforthemostyoubelieveare

gone.Andthiscouldleadtotragicconsequences.

Capgrassyndromeisassociatedwithaveryhighlevelofviolence.One

maninAustraliaacoupleofyearsagowasunderthedelusionthathis

fatherwasreplacedwitharobotandcutoffhishead.Arelateddisorder

involvingtheverysamepartsofthebrainiscalledCotard，ssyndrome.

AndCotard5ssyndromeisyoubelievethatyou，redead;youarepersuaded

thatyou'redead.You，rewalkingaround.Youknowyou'rewalkingaround.

Andyouknowthattherearepeoplearound,butyouthinkthatyou，redead.

Andwhat'sstrikingabouttheseis-it'snot-thesearenotjustsortof

big,screwyproblemsofmesseduppeople.Rather,they，re

located--they，rerelatedatapinpointleveltocertainpartsofyour

brain.Andwe'regoingtotalkaboutthebestmoderntheoriesastowhy

thesesyndromesoccur.

Now,thereasontobeinterestedinthem,again,isnotbecausethey，re

frequent.Theyaren，t.Andit'snotbecauseofsomesortofgruesome,

morbidcuriosity.Rather,bylookingatextremecases,theycanhelpus

bestunderstandnormallife.Oftenbylookingatextremesitthrowsinto

sharpcontrastthingswenaturallytakeforgranted.Theissueof

psychopathy,ofpeoplewho,eitherduetobraindamageorbecausethey

arebornthatway,havenomoralunderstanding,canhelpuscopewith

questionsoffreewillandresponsibility;oftherelationshipor

differencebetweenmentalillnessandevil.Multiplepersonalitycases

forceustoaddressthequestionofwhatisaself.Towhatextentare

allofuscomposedofmultiplepeople,andtowhatextentareweasingle

unifiedpersonovertime?CaseslikeCapgrasareimportantbecausethey

tellusabouthowweseetheworld.Theytellusforinstancethatthere

isadifferencebetweenrecognizingsomethinginthesensethatyoucould

nameit,andknowingwhatitis.Andso,bystudyingtheseabnormalcases

wecouldgetsomeinsightintoregularlife.So,that'stheendofthe

illustrationoftheexampletopics.Thesyllabuslistsmanymore.

r11endbytellingyouthatthere，salotofstuffthatwe'11betalking

about,thatIwanttotalkabout,thatIamnotexpertin.Andfortunately,

thereisacommunityatYaleofthebestscholarsandteachersontheplanet.

Andso,itwouldbeashameformenottousethemtocoversomeofthese

issues.Andso,I'mgoingtoincludefourguestlecturers.Thefirstone

isDr.MarvinChunwhoteachestheIntroductiontoPsychologycoursein

thefallandismycompetition.Andhe'sgoingtogiveanamazinglecture

oncognitiveneuroscience,especiallythecognitiveneuroscienceoffaces.

Dr.SusanNolen-Hoeksemaistheworld，sauthorityondepression,andin

particular,onsexdifferencesanddepression,andshe，sgoingtotalk

aboutthistowardstheendofthecourse.KellyBrownellisgoingto

talk-isheadoftheRuddCenter,focusesonobesity,eatingdisorders,

dieting,andhe'11talkaboutthepsychologyoffood.Andfinally,Dr.

PeterSalovey,DeanofYaleCollege,isgoingtocometousonValentine's

Dayandtelluseverythingheknowsaboutthemysteriesoflove.Allof

thesedetailsareinthesyllabusandI'llstickaroundandanswer

questions.Hopetoseeyounextweek.

IntroductiontoPsychology:Lecture2Transcript

January22,2007

ProfessorPaulBloom:We'regoingtobegintheclassproper,Introduction

toPsychology,withadiscussionaboutthebrain.And,inparticular,I

wanttoleadofftheclasswithanideathattheNobelPrizewinning

biologist,FrancisCrick,describedas"TheAstonishingHypothesis.z，And

TheAstonishingHypothesisissummarizedlikethis.Ashewrites,The

AstonishingHypothesisisthat:

You,yourjoysandyoursorrows,yourmemoriesandyourambitions,your

senseofpersonalidentityandfreewillareinfactnomorethanthe

behaviorofavastassemblyofnervecellsandtheirassociatedmolecules.

AsLewisCarrolVsAlicemighthavephrasedit,〃you'renothingbutapack

ofneurons.〃

Itisfairtodescribethisasastonishing.Itisanoddandunnatural

viewandIdon'tactuallyexpectpeopletobelieveitatfirst.It'san

openquestionwhetheryou'11believeitwhenthisclasscomestoanend,

butrdbesurprisedifmanyofyoubelieveitnow.Mostpeopledon't.

Mostpeople,infact,holdadifferentview.Mostpeoplearedualists.

Now,dualismisaverydifferentdoctrine.It'sadoctrinethatcanbe

foundineveryreligionandinmostphilosophicalsystemsthroughout

history.ItwasveryexplicitinPlato,forinstance.

Butthemostarticulateandwell-knowndefenderofdualismisthe

philosopherReneDescartes,andReneDescartesexplicitlyaskeda

question,“Arehumansmerelyphysicalmachines,merelyphysicalthings?”

Andheanswered,〃no・〃Heagreedthatanimalsaremachines.Infact,he

calledthem"beastmachines“andsaidanimals,nonhumananimalsaremerely

robots,butpeoplearedifferent.There'sadualityofpeople.Like

animals,wepossessphysicalmaterialbodies,butunlikeanimals,what

weareisnotphysical.Weareimmaterialsoulsthatpossessphysical

bodies,thathavephysicalbodies,thatresideinphysicalbodies,that

connecttophysicalbodies.So,thisisknownasdualismbecausetheclaim

is,forhumansatleast,therearetwoseparatethings;there，sour

materialbodiesandthere，sourimmaterialminds.

Now,Descartesmadetwoargumentsfordualism.Oneargumentinvolved

observationsofahumanaction.So,Descarteslivedinafairly

sophisticatedtime,andhistimedidhaverobots.Thesewerenot

electricalrobots,ofcourse.Theywererobotspoweredbyhydraulics.So,

DescarteswouldwalkaroundtheFrenchRoyalGardensandtheFrenchRoyal

Gardensweresetuplikeaseventeenth-centuryDisneyland.Theyhadthese

charactersthatwouldoperateaccordingtowaterflowandsoifyoustepped

onacertainpanel,aswordsmanwouldjumpoutwithasword.Ifyoustepped

somewhereelse,abathingbeautywouldcoverherselfupbehindsomebushes.

AndDescartessaid,〃Boy,thesemachinesrespondincertainwaysto

certainactionssomachinescandocertainth