2024年整合太阳能和风能-全球经验和新兴挑战报告（英文版）-IEA国际能源署

Integrating

SolarandWind

Globalexperienceandemergingchallenges

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IntegratingSolarandWindAbstract

Globalexperienceandemergingchallenges

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Abstract

Solarphotovoltaics(PV)andwindpowerhavebeengrowingatanacceleratedpace,morethandoublingininstalledcapacityandnearlydoublingtheirshareofglobalelectricitygenerationfrom2018to2023.ThisreportunderscorestheurgentneedfortimelyintegrationofsolarPVandwindcapacitytoachieveglobaldecarbonisationgoals,asthesetechnologiesareprojectedtocontributesignificantlytomeetgrowingdemandsforelectricityby2030.However,shouldcountriesfailtoimplementintegrationmeasuresinlinewithascenariowheretheyachievetheirclimateandenergypledges,theglobalpowersectorcouldjeopardiseupto15%ofsolarPVandwindenergyorvariablerenewableenergy(VRE)generationin2030.Ifthisgapiscompensatedforwithcontinuedrelianceonfossilfuels,itcouldleadtosignificantlylessCO2emissionsreductions.

Akeyaspectofthisreportisafirst-everglobalstocktakeofVREintegrationmeasuresacross50powersystems,whichaccountfornearly90%ofglobalsolarPVandwindpowergeneration.ThisanalysisidentifiesprovenmeasuresforfacilitatingVREintegration,particularlyinsystemsatearlyphasesofadoption.ThisreportalsoupdatesIEA'sphasesofVREintegrationframeworktoreflectemergingchallengesathigherlevelsofVREpenetrationandprovidesanoverviewofsolutionstoaddressthemthatarealreadybeginningtobeimplementedinseveralcountries.ThisreportemphasisesthatwhilesystemsatearlyphasesofVREintegrationcanacceleratedeploymentwithrelativelylowsystemimpact,thoseinhighphasesfacemorecomplexchallengesrelatedtostabilityandflexibility,whichcallforatransformationofhowpowersystemsareoperated,plannedandfinanced.

Thisreportcallsforstrategicgovernmentaction,enhancedinfrastructure,andregulatoryreformstoensurethesuccessfullarge-scaleintegrationofsolarPVandwindinordertomeetglobalenergytransitiontargets.Robustdata,stakeholdercollaborationandgovernmentprioritisationofintegrationmeasuresareessentialforovercomingthesechallengesandachievingasustainableenergyfuture.

IntegratingSolarandWindAcknowledgements

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Acknowledgements,contributorsandcredits

ThisstudywaspreparedbytheRenewableIntegrationandSecureElectricity(RISE)UnitintheDirectorateofEnergyMarketsandSecurity(EMS)inco-operationwithotherdirectoratesandofficesoftheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA).Thestudywasledandco-ordinatedbyRenaKuwahata,EnergyAnalystPowerSystemTransformation,andJavierJorqueraCopier,JuniorEnergyAnalyst,undertheguidanceofPabloHevia-Koch,HeadofRISEUnit.

ThemainauthorsofthisstudyareRenaKuwahata,JavierJorqueraCopierandPabloHevia-Koch.KeycontributionswerefromBeatrizBarbosa(stocktakeofmeasures),TrevorCriswell(connectionqueues),CamillePaillard(phasesdefinitionandforecasting),IsaacPortugal(phaseassessment),FlorisvanDedem(demandresponse)andJacquesWarichet(emergingchallenges).

Othercontributionsfromacrosstheagencywerefrom:ErenÇam(frequencystability),MichaelDrtil(grids),KeithEverhart(policyrecommendations),FrancysPintoMiranda(frequencystability)andOskarSchickhofer(contractsandsupportschemes).

YagodelBarrio,EsraBozkirBroekman,EnriqueGutierrezTavarez,CraigHart,ZoeHungerford,YuheiIto,HyejeongLee,EdwardMcDonald,YuNagatomi,AxelPriambodo,andJiapengZhengprovidedessentialsupport.

JustinFrench-Brookscarriededitorialresponsibility.

SeveralcolleaguesacrosstheIEAprovidedvaluableinputtothisstudy,including:NadimAbillama,YasminaAbdelilah,VasiliosAnatolitis,HeymiBahar,JoséMiguelBermúdezMenéndez,PiotrBojek,GyuriCho,JulieDallard,OskarKvarnstrom,Jean-BaptisteLeMarois,TeoLombardo,LauraMariMartinez,BrieucNerincx,AloysNghiem,AlessioPastore,AmaliaPizarro,BrendanReidenbach,AlanaRawlinsBilbao,AlessiaScoz,SiddharthSingh,ThomasSpencer,andAnthonyVautrin.

ValuablecommentsandfeedbackwereprovidedbyotherseniormanagementandnumerousothercolleagueswithintheIEA.Inparticular,KeisukeSadamori,PaoloFrankl,BrianMotherway,TimGould,DennisHesseling,NickJohnstone,AraceliFernandezPales,UweRemme,andBrentWanner.

ThanksgototheIEA’sCommunicationsandDigitalOfficefortheirhelpinproducingthereportandwebsitematerials,particularlytoJethroMullen,and

IntegratingSolarandWindAcknowledgements

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CurtisBrainard.AstridDumond,JuliaHorowitz,WonjikYang,LivGaunt,ClaraVallois,LucileWall,PoeliBojorquezandLorenzoSquillaceprovidedessentialsupporttotheproductionprocess.

IEA’sOfficeoftheLegalCounsel,OfficeofManagementandAdministrationandEnergyDataCentre,providedassistancethroughoutthepreparationofthereport.

WealsothankEinarEinarssonforhisassistanceonsettingupthepeerreview.ThanksalsogototheIEAElectricitySecurityAdvisoryBoard.

ThepermanentdelegationsfromvariouscountriestotheOECDalsoprovidedvaluableinputandsupport.

Manyseniorgovernmentofficialsandinternationalexpertsprovidedinputandreviewedpreliminarydraftsofthereport.Theircommentsandsuggestionswereofgreatvalue.Theyinclude(inalphabeticalorder):

PhilippeAdam(CIGRE),DanieleAndreoli(EnelX),DougArent(NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory),CaterinaAugusto(SolarPowerEurope),NataliaBaudry(CRE),HarmeetBawa(HitachiEnergy),LexBosselaar(RijksdienstvoorondernemendNederland),GuyBrodsky(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),MichaelCaravaggio(ElectricPowerResearchInstitute),FrancescoCariello(ARERA),PawelCzyzak(Ember),SalvatoreDeCarlo(Terna),VidushiDembi(WindEurope),FernandoDominguez(EUDSOEntity),ArjaEven(RijksdienstvoorondernemendNederland),EmmaFagan(Eirgrid),RosaIselaGómezGarcía(SecretaríadeEnergía,Mexico),MattGray(TransitionZero),MaciejGrzeszczyk(EuropeanCommission),XueHan(DevelopmentResearchCenteroftheStateCouncil),HanneleHolttinen(Recognis),ErnestoHuber(CoordinadorEléctricoNacional),LarsGeorgJensen(DanishEnergyAgency),UlrichKaltenbach(Energy&MeteoSystems),JamesKappel(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),MarkLauby(NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation),BronwynLazowski,PhD(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),NadineLombardoHan(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),NitikaMago(ElectricReliabilityCouncilofTexas),AmanMajid(TransitionZero),LucaMarchisio(Terna),KiaMarieJerichau(Energinet),LucianoMartini(RicercasulSistemaEnergetico),YasuoMatsuura(KansaiTransmissionandDistribution),IsabelMurray(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),KanameOgawa(MinistryofEconomy,TradeandIndustryofJapan),MikaOhbayashi(JapanRenewableEnergyInstitute),SanderOosterloo(Alliander),GeorgiosPapaefthymiou(EliaGridInternational),KittiyaPetsee(MinistryofEnergyofThailand),EldrichRebello(MinistryofEnergyandNaturalResourcesofCanada),AnanyaSaraf(Wärtsilä),SCSaxena(GridIndia),HannahSchindler(FederalMinistryforEconomicAffairsandClimateActionofGermany),DevonSwezey(Google),MarthaSymko-Davies(NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory),EckehardTroester(EnergynauticsGmbH),Woutervanden

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Akker(Alliander),ØivindViktorBlix(ARVA),PeerapatVithayasrichareon(DNV),FrankWiersma(Tennet),MatthewWood(Wärtsilä),ZulfamiZulhasni(TenagaNasionalBerhad).

Thereportwasalsoinformedbytheinsightsgatheredduringthehigh-levelWorkshoponRenewablesIntegration,heldon9April2024.TheIEAwouldliketothanktheConferences,BuildingsandSecurityUnitattheIEAandfollowingexpertswhoparticipatedinsuchdiscussions(inalphabeticalorder):

ThomasAckermann(Energynautics),PhilippeAdam(CIGRE),DanieleAndreoli(EnelX),JulienArmijo(ZenonResearch),VincentAuffray(AFD-FrenchDevelopmentAgency),SerhatAydogdu(JustClimate),MichaelBall(WärtsiläEnergy),RafaelBellido(Iberdrola),ThomasBjörk(GEGridSolutions),KarimaBoukir(Enedis),RandolphBrazier(HSBC),TomBrown(TUBerlin),ArneBrufladtSvendsen(Infinigrid),DuncanBurt(ReactiveTechnologies),MarcosByrne(WindEnergyIreland),CatlinCalllaghan(USDepartmentofEnergy),FrederikaCederlund(HSBC),AndrzejCeglarz(RenewablesGridInitiative),DevrimCelal(Krakenflex),NaomiChevillard(SolarPowerEurope),FaridComaty(Afry),KillianDaly(EnergyTag),LukaDeBruyckere(ECOS-EnvironmentalCoalitiononStandards),VidushiDembi(WindEurope),FernandoDominguez(EUDSOEntity),EmmaFagan(EirGrid),CarlosAlbertoFernándezLópez(IDEA),AidaGarcia(Eurelectric),AntoineGery(Engie),BeatGoldstein(SwissFederalOfficeofEnergy),RosaIselaGómezGarcía(SecretaríadeEnergía,Mexico),SantiagoGómezRamos(AccionaEnergia),RomanGrabchak(NPCUkrenergo),AndyHackett(CentreforNetZero),AlejandroHernández(RAP),ChristianHewicker(DNVEnergySystemsGmbH),JonathanHorne(M.P.EPowerSystemConsultants),AndersHove(OxfordInstituteforEnergyStudies),ErnestoHuber(CoordinadorEléctricoNacional),ClaraHubert(AuroraEnergyResearch),AndreasIndinger(AustrianEnergyAgency),KiaMarieJerichau(Energinet),UlrichKaltenbach(Energy&MeteoSystems),SarahKeay-Bright(NationalEnergySystemOperator),HiroyukiKihara(OCCTO),SeiichiroKimura(RenewableEnergyInstitute),JulienLeBaut(N-SIDE),GregoireLena(AFD-FrenchDevelopmentAgency),PatrickLiddy(EnergyWeb),SafiaLimousin(Bain&Company),NitikaMago(ERCOT),AmanMajid(TransitionZero),LucianoMartini(ISGAN),DomantasMikelevičius(MinistryofEnergyofLithuania),DavidMutisya(MinistryofEnergyandPetroleumofKenya),RobertNyiredy(Infinigrid),MikaObayashi(RenewableEnergyInstitute),KanameOgawa(MinistryofEnergyTradeandIndustryofJapan),SanderOosterloo(Alliander),JakeOster(AWS),KristenPanerali(WEF),GeorgiosPapaefthymiou(EliaGrid),ArtemPasko(KharkivoblenergoJSC),CédricPhilibert(Independentconsultant),MarkusPoeller(M.P.EPowerSystemConsultants),ZubinPostwalla(GEVernova),ThiagoPrado(EPE),EckardQuitmann(Enercon),ChristophRathgeber(SecretariatEnergyStorageTCP),ChristophRichter(SolarPACESTCP),SofiaRodriguez(GEVernova),SjoerdRooijakkers(MinistryofEconomicAffairsand

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ClimatePolicyoftheNetherlands),LiamRyan(EirGrid),AnnieScanlan(RE-SourcePlatform),JamesSherwood(RMI),VijayShinde(SiemensEnergy),JelenaSimjanovic(BuildingsPerformanceInstituteEurope),AbishekSomani(PacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory),ÉmelineSpire(AgoraEnergiewende),SergiiSuiarko(MinistryofEnergyofUkraine),LinaSveklaite(MinistryofEnergyofLithuania),DevonSwezey(Google),MarthaSymko-Davies(NREL),EmanueleTaibi(FieldItalia),KenjiTakahashi(JERA),AlbertoTorilCastro(BreakthroughEnergy),InesTunga(UKCatapult),JoachimVanzetta(ReactiveTechnologies),RobertoVelasquez(GalileoEnergy),DavidWellard(Orsted),AgnieszkaWiduto(EuropeanParliamentResearchService),FrankWiersma(Tennet),MikeWilks(Baringa),PrihastyaWiratama(ASEANCenterforEnergy),IlkemYildiz(Unilever),JonasZinke(EON)andAlexandreZucarato(ONS).

IntegratingSolarandWindExecutivesummary

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Executivesummary

TimelyintegrationisessentialforwidespreaduptakeofsolarPVandwind

RealisingthefullpotentialofexpandingsolarPVandwindrequiresproactiveintegrationstrategies.Between2018and2023,solarPVandwindcapacitymorethandoubled,whiletheirshareofelectricitygenerationalmostdoubled.Governmentsarepositioningthesesourcesaskeypillarsfordecarbonisingtheenergysector,andcapacityisexpectedtocontinueexpandingatspeedtowards2030,drivenbyasupportivepolicyenvironmentandrecentcostreductionsinsolarPVandwind.TheCOP28pledgetotripleglobalrenewablecapacityby2030suggestsgrowthcouldaccelerateevenmorethananticipated,requiringintensifiedeffortsandinvestmentstomeetthisambitioustarget.

MaximisingthebenefitsfromincreasedsolarPVandwindcapacityrequireseffectiveintegrationintopowersystems.Whilepowersystemshavealwaysmanageddemandvariability,variablerenewableenergy(VRE)suchaswindandsolarPVintroducessupplyvariabilitydependingontheweather.Thisvariabilitywillrequireincreasingtheflexibilityoftheentirepowersystem,byleveragingdispatchablegeneration,gridenhancements,increasedstorageanddemandresponse.Successfulintegrationmaximisestheamountofenergythatcanbesourcedsecurelyandaffordably,minimisescostlysystemstabilitymeasures,andreducesdependencyonfossilfuels.

Delayingtheimplementationofmeasurestosupportintegrationcouldjeopardiseupto15%ofsolarPVandwindpowergenerationin2030andwouldlikelyresultinuptoa20%smallerreductionofcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsinthepowersector.Shouldintegrationmeasuresfailtobeimplementedinlinewithascenarioalignedwithnationalclimatetargets,upto2000terawatt-hours(TWh)ofglobalVREgenerationwouldbeatriskby2030,endangeringachievingnationalenergyandclimatepledges.Thispotentialloss–equivalenttothecombinedVREoutputofChinaandtheUnitedStatesin2023–stemsfrompossibleincreasesintechnicalandeconomiccurtailment,aswellaspotentialprojectconnectiondelays.Consequently,theshareofsolarPVandwindintheglobalelectricitymixin2030wouldreach30%,lowerthanthe35%inthecasewhereintegrationmeasuresareimplementedontime.Ifthisdecreaseiscompensatedbyincreasedrelianceonfossilfuels,itcouldleadtouptoa20%smallerreductionofcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsinthepowersector.

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Governmentsmuststrategicallysupporttargetedintegrationmeasures,butguidanceisneededonwhichtoprioritiseatdifferentstages.IntegrationofVREhasbeenakeyresearchfocusformanyyearsinleadingmarkets,resultingintheproposalofnumeroustechnological,policyandoperationalmeasures.Despitethisextensiveresearch,identifyingspecificprioritymeasuresforimplementationremainschallenging.ThisreportaimstosupportpolicymakersonthisissuebypresentinganupdateoftheIEA’sphasesofVREintegrationframework,originallydevelopedin2017andsubsequentlyrefinedwiththeCleanEnergyMinisterialInitiative,21stCenturyPowerPartnership.

ThisframeworkidentifiessixphasesofincreasingsystemimpactsfromsolarPVandwindgeneration,eachwithcorrespondingchallengesandsolutions.Bymappingasystemtoitscurrentphase,theframeworkhelpsidentifypriorityintegrationmeasuresandfacilitatesthesharingofexperiencesacrosssystemsinsimilarcircumstances.Adefinitionofeachphasecanbefoundattheendofthisexecutivesummary.

TheIEA'sstocktakerevealsprovenstrategiesandconcretemeasuresforsuccessfulVREintegration.Thisreportpresentsafirst-evercomprehensivestocktakeofintegrationmeasuresimplementedacross50powersystemsworldwide,coveringnearly90%ofglobalsolarPVandwindgeneration.TheanalysisidentifiesacoresetofmeasuresuniversallyadoptedbysystemsinPhase2ofVREintegrationandhigher.Theseserveasaguideforgovernmentstoidentifyandimplementproven,effectiveintegrationapproaches.Additionally,thestocktakeprovidesinsightintothemeasuresadoptedinsystemsattheforefrontofVREintegration,offeringaguideforcreatingforward-lookingstrategies.

Well-knownandtestedmeasurescanbeusedtointegratethemajorityofnewVRE

MostofthegrowthinVREgenerationwilloccurinsystemsatlowphasesofVREintegration(Phases1to3).Inascenarioinwhichcountriesmeettheirclimateandenergycommitmentsinfullandontime,nearlytwo-thirdsofadditionalsolarPVandwindgenerationin2030comparedto2022isprojectedtooccurinsystemsatlowphasesofVREintegration.Thesesystemsareprimarilylocatedinemergingmarketanddevelopingeconomies(EMDEs),includingIndiaandBrazil,alongwithothersintheMiddleEast,Asia,AfricaandLatinAmerica.TheremainingthirdofVREgenerationgrowthwouldtakeplaceinenergysystemsathighphasesofintegration,manyofwhichareinadvancedeconomies.

Measuresbasedonprogressiveandtargetedadjustmentscanintegratemostnewcapacityinlow-phasesystems.SystemsinearlyintegrationphasesexperiencerelativelylowimpactsassolarPVandwindgenerationincrease,withmostchallengesaddressablethroughstraightforwardmodificationstoexisting

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assetsoroperationalimprovementsthatincreaseflexibility.Ourstocktake,whichidentifiedcoreintegrationmeasuresimplementedinallofthe40systemsinPhase2orhigher,revealedacommoncharacteristic:theycouldbeimplementedinatargetedandprogressivemanner.Thesemeasuresincludeoptimisingdispatchprocessesandimprovedforecasting,solicitinghigherflexibilityandsystemservicesfrombothconventionalandVREpowerplants,enablingindustrialdemandresponseandenhancinggridinfrastructure.Thekeyadvantageofthesemeasuresliesintheiradaptability,astheydonotrequirecompleteimplementationorsweepingtransformationsofthepowersystem,regulatoryframeworksormarketstructures.Instead,theyprovideaflexibleapproachthatcanbetailoredtoaddressspecificchallengesastheyarise,facilitatingacost-effectiveandscalableintegrationprocessthatevolvesalongsidethechangingneedsofthepowersystem.

IntegrationchallengesshouldnotbeseenasasignificantbarrierforexpandingVREcapacityinsystemsatlowphasesofintegration.Therelativelylowsystem-levelimpactsofVREinlow-phasesystems,coupledwiththeavailabilityofcost-effective,progressivelyimplementableintegrationmeasures,shouldalleviateconcernsaboutintegrationchallengesforcountrieswithlowVREpenetration.ByimplementingthecoreintegrationmeasuresweidentifiedintandemwithVREdeployment,systemswithcurrentlylimitedVREcapacitycansignificantlyacceleratetheircleanenergyambitions.ThisstrategicapproachiscrucialformaximisingthebenefitsofVREtechnologies,includingtheirpositiveimpactsondecarbonisation,deliveringaffordableenergytoconsumersandreducingdependencyonfossilfuels.

FrontrunnersystemsshowthateffectiveintegrationofhighVREsharesispossibletoday

Somefrontrunnerpowersystemstodayareeffectivelymanaginghighlevelsofvariablerenewableenergy.SystemssuchasthoseinDenmark,Ireland,SouthAustraliaandSpainhavereachedPhase4orhigher,integratingfrom35upto75%ofVREintheirannualgeneration,dependingonthesystem.Atthesepenetrationlevels,challengesinstabilityandflexibilityacrossalltimeframesbecomemoreacute.ThesesystemsoftenseeVREcovermostoftheirgenerationforoveraday,necessitatinginnovativesolutionsintermsofoperating,planning,andfinancingtheirpowersystem.TheirexperiencesprovidevaluableinsightsforothersystemsaroundtheworldaimingtoaccelerateVREintegration.

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ExistingtechnologiesaresuccessfullyhelpingtotacklethechallengesassociatedwithintegratinghighsharesofVRE.Mosttechnologicalsolutionsaddressingemergingchallenges–namely,ahigherfocusonstabilityandagrowingneedforflexibilityacrossalltimeframes–areeithermatureorcommerciallyavailable.Thekeytotheirsuccessfulrolloutoftenliesinappropriatepolicyandregulatoryactionratherthannewtechnologicalbreakthroughs.Formanysystems,reachingPhase4oreven5dependsmainlyoneffectivedeploymentofexistingtechnologiesratherthandevelopingnewones.WhileforPhase6,viabletechnologiesexistbuttheirimplementationatalargescaleremainslimited,requiringadditionaltestingoreconomicincentivesfordeployment.

Achievingthislevelofintegrationrequiresaparadigmshiftinsystemoperation,planning,andfinancing.IntegratinghighsharesofVRErequiresrethinkingthetraditionalwayinwhichpowersystemsareoperated,planned,andfinanced.Essentialelementsincludemodernisingsystemoperationpractices,improvedstrategicplanning,andoverhaulingregulatoryframeworks.Marketdesignmustevolveaswelltoaccommodatetheuniquecharacteristicsofsolarandwind-dominatedgrids,newtechnologies,andthenewroleofconventionalgenerationastheproviderofessentialsystemservicesratherthanenergy.Thisincludesdevelopingnewmethodsforprocuringandrewardingnecessarysystemservices,ensuringtheyaremaintainedandevolvedasneeded.

Whilesignificantprogresshasbeenmadebyfrontrunnersystems,notallanswersexisttodayforfutureveryhighVREpenetrationlevels.ThecontinuedandacceleratedVREgrowthinthecomingdecadewilllikelyunveilnewintegrationchallenges.ThesemaycomefromfrontrunnersystemsreachingunprecedentedlevelsofVREorfromsystemswithuniquelocalconditionsthatrequireinnovativesolutions.Manyadditionalsystems–includingthoseinAustralia,Japan,ItalyandBrazil–areexpectedtoreachPhase4orhigherby2030.Forthesesystems,anongoingfocusondevelopingintegrationmeasures–coupledwithglobalsharingofeffectivepolicies,regulatoryframeworks,andmarketdesignelements–willbecrucialinsupportingasecureenergytransition.

SomekeyissuesforpowersystemswithveryhighVREpenetrationremainunresolved.Thesetopicsincludeaddressingseasonalvariabilityconcerns,operatingsystemswithveryhighlevelsofconverter-basedresources,ensuringtheprofitabilityofnewinvestmentsamidincreasingpricevolatility,andappropriatelyremuneratingassetsthatprovideflexibilityfortheirsystemvalue.Resolvingthesechallengeswillrequirecontinuedinnovation,collaborationandcommitmentfrompolicymakers,technologyleadersandresearchersworldwide.

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Sixphasesofvariablerenewableenergyintegration

Phase1:VREhasnosignificantimpactatthesystemlevel

phases

Low

Phase2:VREhasaminortomoderateimpactonthesystem

Phase3:VREdeterminestheoperationpatternofthepowersystem

}

Phase4:VREmeetsalmostalldemandattimes

Highphases

Phase5:SignificantvolumesofsurplusVREacrosstheyear

Phase6:SecureelectricitysupplyalmostexclusivelyfromVRE

IEA.CCBY4.0.

IntegratingSolarandWindIntroduction

Globalexperienceandemergingchallenges

Introduction

Theglobalenergylandscapeiswitnessingunprecedentedexpansionofvariablerenewableenergy(VRE)sources,

1

particularlysolarPVandwindpower.Thesetechnologiesconsistentlybreakrecordsforannualinstallation,drivenbyrapidlydecliningcostsandincreasinglyambitiousgovernmentandmultilateralpolicies,andare