语言学的课件

1.1Whystudylanguage?

1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.

2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.

3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.

1.2Whatislanguage?

Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedfor

humancommunication.

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage（定义特征、本质特征）

Arbitrariness（任意性）

Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheir

meanings.

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage（定义特征、本质特征）

Duality（双重性、二层性）

Itreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelare

composedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesof

organization.

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage（定义特征、本质特征）

Creativity（创造性）

Itmeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness（递）1mlzk）.

Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.The

recursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendless

sentences.

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage（定义特征、本质特征）

Displacement（移位性）

Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsand

conceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofconversation.

1.4Originoflanguage

1.Thebow-wowtheory（拟声说）

Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmentthey

livedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.

1.4Originoflanguage

2.Thepooh-poohtheory（感叹说）

Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoy

whichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.

1.4Originoflanguage

3.Theyo-he-ho"theory（劳动喊说，哼哨声说）

Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgradually

developedintochantsandthenintolanguage.

1.5Functionsoflanguage

Informative（信息功能）meanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseitto

communicatenewinformation.

Interpersonalfunction（人际功能）meanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheir

statusinasociety.

Performative（施为功能）functionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,as

inmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipata

launchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.

Emotivefunction（感情功能）isoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialin

changingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.

Phaticcommunion（寒暄功能）meanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaningless

expressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortable

relationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.

Oh?Howdoyoudo?您吃了么？去哪呀？

Recreationalfiinction（娱乐功能）meanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasa

baby'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.

Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）meanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanuse

theword"book"totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook“totalkabout

thesign^b-o-o-k55itself.

1.6Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,

butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.

1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1.7.1Phonetics（语音学）

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,

itincludesthreemainareas:

articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学），

acousticphonetics（声学语音学），

andauditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）.

1.7.2Phonology（音系学）

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsand

theshapeofsyllables.

1.7.3Morphology（形态学）

Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.

1.7.4Syntax（句法学）

Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,or

simply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

1.7.5Semantics（语义学）

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

1.7.6Pragmatics（语用学）

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

1.8Macrolinguistics（宏观语言学）

Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealt

solelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.

1.8.1Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）

Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducing

utterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.

1.8.2Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）

Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,

includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.

1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics（人类语言学）

Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.

1.8.4Computationallinguistics（计算机语言学）

Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputersto

processorproducehumanlanguage.

1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive（描写式和规定式）

Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordthe

rulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimpose

uponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.

Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesfbrthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputes

overusageonceandforall.

Forexample,"Don'tsayX."isaprescriptivecommand;"Peopledon'tsayX."isadescriptive

statement.

Thedistinctionliesin

prescribinghowthings

oughttobeanddescribing

howthingsare.

1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic(共时和历时)

Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure's

diachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory,

synchronicvsdiachronic

Synchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.

(eg"AgrammarofmodemGreek^^“ThestructureofShakespeare'sEnglish.,,)

Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagethroughthecourseofhistory.(Darwinists)

astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare^timewouldbesynchronic,

astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.

Ahistoricalstudyoflanguageisa_studyoflanguage.

[A]synchronic[B]diachronic

[C]prescriptive[D]comparative.

1.9.3Langue&parole语言和言语

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataof

linguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonal

andsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturally

occurringevent.

Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.

todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics,

langue语言&parole言语

Lngue:linguisticcompetenceofthespeaker

Parole:actualphenomena,dataoflinguistics(utterances)

1.9.4Competenceandperformance(语言能力和语言应用)

AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalled

thelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalled

performance.

Chomsky'scompetence-perfbnnancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,

Saussure'slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofa

community,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.Saussurelooksat

languagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdeals

withhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.

第二章Phonetics

语音学Phonetics:thestudyofsounds

音韵学Phonology:thestudyofsoundpatterns.

2.1Speechproductionandperception

Whatisphonetics?

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.

语音的研究涉及三个领域

Articulatoryphonetics-thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds发音语音学

Acousticphonetics-thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech声学语音

学

3.Auditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds感知语音学(听觉语音学)

Branchesofphonetics

SpeechSpeech

ProductionPerception

(speakerA)(speakerB)

2.2Organsofspeech

alsoknownasVocalOrgans,arethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionof

speech.

三大声腔：thepharynx,mouth,andnose(咽、口、鼻)

Speechsoundsareproducedwithanairstreamastheirsourcesofenergy.

A.Thepharyngealcavity:

13windpipe,12glottis/vocalcords,11pharyngealcavity

B.Theoralcavity:

1/2lips,3/4teeth,5teethridge(alvcolus),6hardpalate,7softpalate(velum),14uvula,8tipoftongue,

9bladeoftongue,10backoftongue

C.Nasalcavity:15

Voicedandvoiceless

Thelevelofvibration振动ofthevocalcords声带determineswhetherasoundisvoicedor

unvoiced.

Ifthevocalcords-apart,theairstreamisnotobstructedattheglottisandpassesthroughfreely.—

voicelesssounds.

Ifthevocalcordsaretogether,theairstreamforcesitswaythroughandcausesthemtovibrate.-

voicedsounds.feelthedistinctionsounds.

Positionofthevocalfolds:

glottalstop(声门塞音)

TheIPAInternationalPhoneticAssociation国际语音学会InternationalPhoneticAlphabet

PrinciplesofIPA(27页)IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet):

Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.Thepresentonemainly

derivesfromonedevelopedinthe1920sbytheBritishphonetician,DanielJones(1881-1967),

revisedin1993,corrected(updated)in1996.

2.2ConsonantsandVowels

听：元音和辅音有什么区别？

Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.

Consonantsandvowels

Aconsonantisproducedbyconstricting(压缩)orobstructing(阻碍)thevocaltract(声道)atsome

placestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.

Avowelisproducedwithoutobstnictionsonoturbulence(震荡)oratotalstoppingoftheaircanbe

perceived.

2.2.1Consonants

Thecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantof

thesefactorsare:

1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthrough

certainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);发音方式

2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeof

articulation).发音部位

2.2.3ThesoundsofEnglish

ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeen

regardedastheprestige(有威望的)varietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeen

popularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish"or"OxfordEnglish“becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivate

sectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.

2.2.3ThesoundsofEnglish

GA:thewidelyacceptedaccentusedbymosteducatedspeakersintheUSA.

Doremember:

辅音描述时，先描述发音部位，再描述发音器官。

[P]VOICELESSBILABIALSTOP

[b]VOICEDBILABIALSTOP

[S]VOICELESSALVEOLARFRICATIVE

[Z]VOICEDALVEOLARFRICATIVE

[M]BILABIALNASAL

[j]palatalapproximant

[h]glottalfricative

[1]alveolarlateral

英语元音表

2.3Fromphoneticstophonology

2.3.1Coarticulation&phonetictranscription协同发音和语音转写

Coarticulation:Thesimultaneous（同时的）oroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessive

phonologicalunits.

Questions

1maplamb

2howlippositionsaffect[s]inseat&souprespectively?（rounded/unrounded）

先期协同发音和后滞协同发音

Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseof

lamp,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.

Perseverativecoarticulation:Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecase

ofmap,itisperseverativecoarticulation.

如果发音的变化是倾向于后面音的音质，如lamp,就称为先期协同发音。

如果发音显示出前面语音的影响，如map,则称为后滞协同发音。

鼻化音

Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.

如：lamb

变音符

Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.

国际音标中的变音符就是用来转写同音变体之间的细微变化的。

宽式转写和严式转写

Broadtranscription:whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription/

用简单的符号进行语音转写称为宽式转写

Narrowtranscription:whenweusespecificsymbols(phoneticdetails)[]

用复杂的符号表现发音的细节称为严式转写。

Broad&narrowtranscriptionofEnglishwords

WordIBroadtrans〜narrowtrans-p]honeticdetails

Help/help/[heLp]velarization

Play/plei/[Plei]|devoicing

Tenth/ten0/[teyQ]dentalization

Button/,bAtn/[bA?n]glottalization

e/[ph]

[p=]

2.3Fromphoneticstophonology

2.3.2Phonemes音位

Phoneme:anabstractphonologicalunitofdistinctivevaluethatisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertain

phone.

音位是明显的语音对立单位。音位转写放在//中。

Peak&speak（同一个音位）

拼&宾

Minimalpair（最小对立体）

Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegment

whichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimal

pair

Pill/bill;pill/till;till/kill;kill/dill/;dill/gill

/p,b,t,d,k,g/

Cut/but;big/peg;peak/leap

Minimalpair（最小对立南

Minimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesound

andwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferin

meaningandintheirinitialphonemesIIIand/d/.

用最小对比对测试（最小对立体测试），可以发现哪些语音替换会导致意义上的变化。对于英语

来说，这种方法可以区分出40多个重要的语音单位，称为音位。

2.3Fromphoneticstophonology

2.3.3Allophones音位变体

Allophones:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.

音位的变化形式叫做同一音位的音位变体。

/p/：[ph]&[p]/P/有两个音位变体

peakspeak[ph]&[p]

送气不送气

音位描写

回[p]/[s]

[ph]elsewhere

/I/[11/V

[t]/v____

ComplementaryDistribution

互补分布

P/[P]/[s]

[ph]elsewhere

/i/ni/v

[t]/v

theyneveroccurin

thesamecontext.

FreeVariants自Eh变体

Either

这种差异来自方言或个人习惯，与分布规律无关。

2.4音系过程、音系规则和区别特征

2.4.1Assimilation同化现象

Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.

指一个音获得邻音的某些或全部特征的过程。

assimilation

capcan

鼻化音

taptan

tenttenth

齿化音

ninetyninth

逆同化和顺同化

Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressive

assimilation.后面的音影响前面的音。

Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressive

assimilation.前面的音影响后面的音。

Howfricativesandaffricatesareassimilated

带声擦音和塞擦音被同化的例子（43页）

fivepast[faivpa:st][faifpa:st]

这种带声音变成不带声音的过程叫做清音化（devoicing）

Howfricativesandaffricatesareassimilated

带声擦音和塞擦音被同化的例子（43页）

fivepast[faivpa:st][faifpa:st]

这类语音发生变化的过程叫施音索过程(phonologicalprocesses)

phonologicalprocess/rules

3aspectsofthephonologicalprocess:

1asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess

2asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess

3asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies

/v//f7

voicedfricativesvoiceless/voiceless

MZf7

voicedfricativesvoiceless/voiceless

Avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforea

voicelesssound.

2.4.3Distinctivefeatures区别特征

Distinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofa

languagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.

Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeor

word.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethe

semanticpropertiesofwords.

Supresegmcntalfeatures超音段特征

Suprascgmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethan

singlesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.

语音问题中涉及超出单音音段以上的方面。

1syllable音节

2stress重音

3intonation语调

4tone声调

Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.

Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.

Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.

Maximalonsetprinciple:Theprinciplewhichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplacea

consonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda。

Whatisword?

3.1.1Threesensesof"word"

Aphysicallydefinableunit词是自然的有界限的对立单位

Anywordmaybeseenassoundsegmentsorwritinglettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.

音系上：[itis'wndoful]拼写上：Itiswonderful

3.1.1Threesensesof"word"

Generalterm&specificterm既是普通术语又是专门术语

Write-writes-wrote-writing-written

5words(specificterm)1word(generalterm)

Agrammaticalunit

语法单位clausecomplex

clause

phrase/wordgroup

word

morpheme

3.1.2Identificationofwords

[Stability稳定性

Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.

chainnanforexample.Ifthemorphemesarerearrangedas*manchair,itisanunacceptablewordin

English.

Johnisacleverboy.

AcleverboyJohnis.

2.Relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性

disappointment:dis+appoint+ment.

词的各个成分之间不可介入新的成分，也不可有停顿，但句子不同：

(Even)Paul(even)didn't(even)love(even)Jane(even).

3.Aminimumfreeform最小的自由形式

LeonardBloomfield.

sentenceas“themaximumfreeform“andword“theminimumfreefbrm.M

“Help!”

3.1.3Classificationofwords

1.Variableandinvariablewords

3.1.3Classificationofwords

1.Variableandinvariablewords可变化词和非变化词

Invariablewords,onecanfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordform;on

theotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.E.g.follow-follows-following-

followed.

Invariablewordsrefertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello,etc.Theyhaveno

inflectiveendings.

3.1.3Classificationofwords

2.Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords语法词和词汇词

Grammaticalwords,(functionwords),expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,

prepositions,articles,andpronouns.

Lexicalwords,(contentwords),havelexicalmeanings,i.e.thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionand

quality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.

3.1.3Classificationofwords

Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords

封闭类词和开放类词

Closed-classword:whosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.

Therefore,pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.areallcloseditems.

Open-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheopen-classisonewhosemembershipisinprinciple

infiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.

4.Wordclass

(ninewordclasses:名词、代词、形容词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词、冠词)

Herearesomeofthecategoriesnewlyintroducedintolinguisticanalysis.

(1)Particles助词

Auxiliaries助动词

Pro-forms代词形式

(4)Determiners限定词

Particles助词：动词不定式标志to;否定标志not;短语动词的从属单位getby

Auxiliaries助动词：can,will

Pro-forms代词形式：不仅代名词，还可代adj.v.adv.前位all,both

Determiners限定词中位this,that,their后位next,last

Predetenniners+centraldeterminers+postdetenniners.

例：Alltheirtrouble

3.2Theformationofword

3.2.1Morphemeandmorphology

Whatismorpheme?

Whatismorphology?

Definitionofmorpheme

Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.

Thesmallestmeaningfulelementoflanguagethatcannotbereducedtosmallerelements.(Bussmann

1996:313)

Chairman:chair+man

Boys:boy+s

Checking:check+ing

Endless:end+less

Purify:pur(c)+ify

Morphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed,

purify:pur(e)+ify

Amplify,simplify,electrify

3.2.2Typesofmorphemes

1.Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme

Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme

Freemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsby

themselves.

Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.

Freemorpheme:Morphemesthatcanconstitutewordsbythemselves.

Boundmorpheme:Morphemesthatcannotoccur“unattached",butalwaysaspartsofwords.

Root,affixandstem

Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithoutdestroyingits

meaning.

Itisthepartofthewordthatisleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.

词根是构成词的基础成分，不能再做进一步分析。

思考：词根一定是自由语素吗？

Root=Freemorpheme?

Arootmayalsobefreeor/andbound.

词根既可以是自由语素，也可以是黏着语素。

black:black,blackbird,blackboard

-ceive:receive,perceive,conceive(构思)

•mit:permit,remit(宽恕),commit(犯罪),submit(服从)

AfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.

thewordsleepisafreerootmorpheme,whereasslep-inthepasttenseformsleptcannotexistby

itself,andthereforebound.

Root,affixandstem

Anaffixisthecollectivetennforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

词缀是只能附着于另一个语素(词根或词干)上的一类语素的总称。

Prefix:mini-para-in-un-dis-

Suffix:-ise,-ism,-tion,-ncss

Infix:英语中很少见

Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix

屈折词缀只表达一定的语法范畴，是词的语法功能的标记；词加上屈折词缀，只是起了词形变

化，或称屈折变化(inflection)。

英语中绝大多数词缀都是“派生词缀”(derivationalaffix)0派生词缀有一定的语义，也常能决

定单词的词性。如-ish,加在名词book(书)的后面，构成形容词bookish,表示“书上的、像书

一样的、书生气的”等意思。

Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes

1.Derivationalmorpheme:Boundmorphemewhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassof

words.

2.Inflectionalmorphemes:Boundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammatical

markers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.

Inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,

suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthe

stemstowhichtheyareattached.

Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesissometimesknownasa

distinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Wecantellthedifference

betweenthemwiththefollowingways:

Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes

(1)Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.E.g.

toys,walks,John's,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,

derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.E.g.cite,citation,etc.

Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes

(2)Inflectionalaffixesdon'tchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,

flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmalland

smallnessfbrtheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.

(3)Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordthey

attachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.

是否使用屈折词缀取决于短语或句子内部的其他成分。“Theboylikestonavigateonthe

internet/9而派生词缀的使用更多的是根据简单的意义差别。如：选择使用clever还是cleverness,

取决于我们是要谈论聪明的性质还是聪明的状态。

(4)InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.E.g.drums,

walks,etc.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.E.g.depart,teacher,etc.

3.2Theformationofword

Root,affixandstem

Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.

词干是指能够附着上屈折词缀的语素或语素组合。

E.g.friend-infriendsandfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastem

canbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivational

affix.

E.g.friend-infriendsandfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcan

beequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivational

affix.

ContrastbetweenChineseandEnglishwordfonnation

1.汉语偏旁部首Vs英语黏着词素

2.形声与会意Vs合成与派生

汉语

1.形声法

形符+声符

义类+读音

例：湖、铀

2.会意法

例：安好家

英语

1.合成：词+词+...

playboy

forget-me-not

warmhearted

2.派生：前缀+词根+后缀

unfriendly,receive

3.2.3Inflectionandwordformation

1.Inflection

Inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,

suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthe

stemstowhichtheyareattached.

Number:

table-tables

apple—apples

car—cars

Person,finitenessandaspect

人称、限定性、体

talk-talks-talking-talked

open-opens-opening-opened

Case格

Boy-boy's

John-John's

3.2.3Inflectionandwordformation

2.Wordformation

Wordformationreferstotheprocessofhowwordsareformed.Itcanbefurthersub-classifiedintothe

compositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).

(1)Compound

Compoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojoin

twoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,

simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.

Incompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.

day+breakdaybreak(N+V)

play+boyplayboy(V+N)Page65

Compoundscanbefurtherdividedinto：

endocentricLendou'sentric］向心结构exocentricLeksou'sentrik］离心结构

语言学中最早提出复合词向心构式和离心构式的，是Bloomfield(2002:248—249)，以后

Lyons(1968:231—234)对此作了较为详细的阐述。

所谓向心构式，就是指从语义角度看复合词中的一个成分或两个成分起到复合词中心成分的作

用。如bubble-economy(泡沫经济)，其中心成分是economy,而这一中心成分的句法功能是

名词，因而由此构成的这一复合词也是名词，其中心语义也落在了这一中心成分上。

英语中大多复合词均具有向心构式，其句法功能都比较明确，中心成分的句法功能代表着整个

复合词的句法功能，其语