英语词汇学大纲

EnglishLexicologyCourse

ChapterOne:Lexicology:

1.Lexicology:

Lexi="word,phrase”;(Greek);Lexicos="havingtodowithwords”；

Logos="adepartmentoflanguageM(Greek);

Lexicology:abranchoflinguisticsdealingwiththevocabularyofalanguageandpropertiesof

wordsasthemainunitsoflanguage

2.RecognitionofWords

Whatisaword?

Jackson&Amvcla,2000:50-52:FourCharacteristics

•Thewordisanuninterruptible.unit.

•Thewordmayconsistofoneormoremorpheme.

•Thewordoccurstypicallyinthestructureofphrases.

•Thewordshouldbelongtoaspecificwordclassorpartofspeech.

Zhangwciyou(1997:7):

•Aminimalfrccformofalanguage

•Asoundunity

•Aunitofmeaning

•Aformthatcanbefunctionaloneinasentence

Threesensesof"word":

(1)Aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks

•Phonological:/itiswAndsfal/

,Orthographical:Itiswonderful.(PauseorBlank)

•Phonological:/its*wAndafal/

,Orthographical:It'swonderful.(LiaisonorContractedform)

(2).Thecommonfactorunderliningasetofforms

Noun:girl;girls

Verbs:work;worked;works;working

(3).Agrammaticalunitbetweenmorphemeandwordgroup(hierarchicalrank)

'bText

Sentence

Wordgroup/phrase

Word

Morpheme、，

Definition:

(l)“Thcsmallestofthelinguisticunitswhichcanoccuronitsowninspeechandwriting.”

(LongmanDictionaryofAppliesLinguistics:P311.)

(2)“Afreeformthatdoesnotconsistentirelyoflesserfreeformsisaword.”

(Bloomfield,1933.)

(3)“Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasgivensoundandmeaningand

syntacticfunction?"

(Zkangweiyou,1997:7)

4.ClassificationofWords

(I)Variableandinvariablewords

Wordscanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirvariability.

Variablewords:Invariablewords,onecanfindorderedandregularseriesof

grammaticallydifferentforms;onetheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.

Followmat

Followsmats

Following

Followed

Invariablewords:thosewordsthatdonothaveinflectiveendings

Since;when;through;hello;

(2)Grammaticalandlexicalwords

Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords

Grammaticalwords(Functionwords,andemptywords)arcwordsthatlinkitsdifferent

partstogether.

Conjunctions;prepositions,articles;andpronouns

Lexicalwords(Contentwords,Fullwords)arewordsthatcarrythemaincontentofa

language

Nouns;verbs;adjectives;adverbs

(3)Closed-classandopen-classedwords

Closed-classwords:Onewhosemembershipisfixedandlimited.Newmembersare

notregularlyadded.

Conjunctions;prepositions,articles;andpronouns

Open-classedwords:Onewhosemembershipisirprincipleinfiniteorunlimited

Nouns;verbs;adjectives;adverbs

(4)Basicwordsandnon-basicwords

•Basicwords

Characteristics:

★AHnationalcharactcr(thcmostcommonthingsandphenomenaoftheworld)

naturalphenomena;humanbodyandrelations;namesofplantsandanimals;numerals,

pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions

*Stability

^Productivity

★Polysemy

^Collocability(setexpressions;idiomaticusages;proverbialsayingsandthelike)

achangeofheart;afterone'sheart;aheartofgold;cryone'sheartout;catone's

heartout;crossone'sheart;heartandsoukwithallone'sheart;wearone'sheart:One'sheartsinks

withinone;takesomethingtoheart;haveone'sheartinone'smouth

•Non-basicwords

a.Terminology(术语、术语学):thewordsusedinparticulardisciplineandacademicarea

,Inmedicine:photoscanning;hepatitis;

,Inmathematics:algebra;calculus;

,Ineducation:audiovisual;microteaching;

,Inmusic:symphony;orchestra;

b.Jargon(行话、行业语)：thespecializedvocabularybywhichmembersofparticular

arts,sciences,trades,andprofessionscommunicate

thejargonoflaw;medicaljargon

,Inbusiness:ballparkfigures=estimate;

,Inhorse-racing:holdhimback=forceahorsetorunbehindatthebeginningofarace

soastoreservespeedfor(hefinish

,Inmedicine:paranoid=suspicious,worried

,Inwarfare:buster=bomb

Peopleoutsidethecirclehavedifficultyinunderstandingthewords.

c.Slang(俚语)：thesub-standardlanguage

Casual,veryinformalwords,usingexpressivebutinformalwordsandexpressions

Beatit!Rackoff!(leave)

Beaver(girl);smoky,bear(police);catch(talkto);hollcr(call);Rogcr(undcrstand);

X-rays(radar)

d.Argot(隐语、黑话)

Speechspokenandunderstoodbyonlysmallpeople

Can-opener(all-purposekey);dip(pick=pocket);persuader(dagger)

e.DialectalWords(方言词)

Wordsspokeninonepartofacountry(regionaldialect),orbypeoplebelongingtoa

particularsocialclass(socialdialectorsociolecl)

f.Archaism(古词语):wordsthatwereonceincommonusebutarenowrestrictedonlyto

specialorlimiteduse.

Thou(you);Ye(pluralyou);thee(objectiveyou);

Wilt(will);brethren(brother);quoth(said);

g.Neologism(新词):Newly-createdwordsorexpressionsorwordsthathavetakenonnew

meaning

microelectronics=thebranchofelectronicsdealingwithintegratedcircuits

futurology=astudythatdealswithfuturepossibilitiesbasedoncurrenttrends

AIDS=acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome

E-mail=electronicmail,thesendingofmessagesviacomputersystems

internet=aninternationalcomputernetworklinkingbothbusinessandprivateusers

freakout=withdrawfromrealityandsocietyesp.bytakingdrugs.

User-friendly(月户友好的)

Software(软件)

Floppydisk(软盘)

(5)NativewordsandBorrowedwords

(a)Nativewords:Anglo-Saxonwords;amountingtoroughly5000-6000;mainstreamof

thebasicwordstock

Twofeatures:

•Neutralinstyle;

Native(common)Borrowed(formal)

begin(E)commence(F)

brotherly(E)fraternal(F)

kingly(E)regal(F)regal(L)

rise(E)mount(F)ascend(L)

•Frequentinuse

(b)Borrowedwords

Thewordsarctakenoverfromforeignlanguages.kThcEnglishlanguagehasvastdebts.

Inanydictionarysome80%of(heentriesareborrowed.”(EncyclopediaAmerican,1980Vol.10,

p.423),Baugh(1978)talksofEnglishvocabularyas"cosmopolitanvocabulary”.

•Loanwords(借词):Aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlya

slightadaptation,insomecase,tothephonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter

TeafromChinese;alfreshco(in(heopenair)fromItalian

•Loanblend(*昆合借词)：Aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,

butthemeaningisfullyborrowed

InEnglish,thefirstpartsofthewords“coconut"and"Chinalown“camefromSpanishand

Chineserespectively,butthesecondpartsoftheEnglishorigin.

•LoanshifK转移借词)：AprocessinwhichthemeaningisboiTowed,buttheformisnative..

“Bridge"isanEnglishword,butwhenitreferestoatypeofcardgame,themeaningwas

borrowedfromtheLatian“ponte”

TheEnglishword"artificialsatellite^^isalsoacaseofloanshifttocounteracttheRussian

“sputnik”

•Loantranslation翻译借词)：Aprocessinwhicheachmorphemeorwordistranslatedin

theequivalentmorphemeorwordinanotherlanguage.

(a)Wordstranslatedaccordingio(hemeaning

Mothertonguefromlinguamaternal(L)

Blackhumourfromhumournoir(F)

(b)Wordstranslatedaccordingtothesound

Kulakfromkyrak(Russ)

Lamafromlama(Tib)

•Denizens(同化词):wordsborrowedearlyinthepastandnowarewellassimilatedintothe

Englishlanguage,e.g.

Portfromportus(L);cupfromcuppaL(L);porkfromproc(F)

•Aliens(非同化词)：Wordsthathaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling

Kowtow(CH);emir(Arab);intermezzo(IT);decor(F);

(8)WordClass

Traditionalview:

Noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition.conjunction,intcijcction.article

Modernview:

a.Particles:getby(tocontinueone'swayoflife);doup(fasten);lookback(toremember)

b.Auxiliaries:-Negation:Ican'tcome

<Inversion:Ishecoming?

♦Code:I'llcomeandsowillBill?

•Emphasis:Hehascome.

c.Pro-form(代替形式)：

Traditionallypronounistheonlywordclass(hatcanfunctionasasubstitutefor

anotheritem.Inmodernlinguisticsitreferstotheclosedsetsofitemsthatcanbeusedto

substituteforanominalgrouporasinglenoun.

>Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.

>Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.

>Pro-adverb:HehopesheMlwinandIhopessotoo.

>Pro-locative:Jame'shidingthere,behindthedoor.

d.Determiners:Wcrdsusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase

>Predeterminer:all,both,half,double,twice,etc.

>Posldeterminer:last,next,past,other,etc.

•Centraldetemiiner:this,that,these,those,your,neither,etc.

Order:Prcdeterminer+Centraldeterminer-t-Postdeterminer

5.CharacteristicsofWords

(1).Stability:

Theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialsforrearrangement,

comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthe

hierarchy.

Disappointment

Dis+appoint+ment

(2).Relativeuninterruptibility

Newelementsarcnottobeinsertedintoawordwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.

©Chairman

*manchairbutinthefollowing

Thechairmanlookedaltheaudience.

Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.

(3).Aminimalfreeform

Themaximumfreeform(sentence)(Bloomfield)

disagree

(4)Stylisticfeatures:

6.InformationofWords

(I).Phonologicalinfonnation

Bythesequenceofsoundsthatitismadeupof,weknowhowtopronounceit.

Desk

(2).Morphologicalinformation

Theinternalstructureofaword,thatis,howindividualmeaningfulunitsarccombined

toformtheword

Dislike

(3)Syntaclicinformation

Howtorelateacerainwordtotheothersinthesentence

Theword“roars“canbeusedinasentencelike"al:onroars”

(4).Semanticinformation

Awordhasameaningorseveralmeanings:

Stone

,amallpieceofrock(denotativemeaning)

,agrapestone(extendedmeaning/ahardseedinsidesomefruits)

,Shemusthaveaheartofstone.(Somebodywhoshowsnopityorsympathy)

(5).Pragmaticinformation

Ifweputtheword"cold"indifferentsituations,itmayconveydifferentinformation

dependinguponthedifferentcontexts.

a.Closethedoor.

b.Putmoreclotheson.

c.Turnontheair-condition

d.Leaveherequickly.

ChapterTwoMorpheme

1.Morphemeandmorphs

Morphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofthewordsandtherulesbywhichthe

wordsareformed,e.g.

Morpheme;thesmallestmeaningfulsegmentsinalanguage

Unlike--Un+likc

Morph:thesmallestmeaningfulphoneticsegmentsofanutteranceonthelevelofparole.e.g.

Work-----works,working,worked

2.MorphemeClassification

(1)Lexicalandgrammaticalmorphemes

Toclassifymorphemes,letusbeginbyconsideringthefollowingexample.

ThedogsbarkedatJohnscar.

Brokendownintcmorphemes,thesentencecanbesegmentedas:thcfollowing:

The।dog»s•barkIcd।atIJohnI's•car

Groupedintotwotypes:

Lexicalmorphemes:whichhavemeaningsuchasdog.bark,car,and

Grammaticalmorphemes:whichhavelittleornomeaningoftheirown,usuallyexpressing

grammaticalconceptssuchasdefiniteness(the),case(the

John's),tense(-ed),andplurality(dogs).Theclassification

canbegeneralizedas:

Lexicalmorphemes(free)

Morphemes

Grammaticalmorphemes(bound)

①Affixandbase

Anotherwaytoclassifymorphemesistogroupthemintoaffixes(orboundmorphemes)

andbase/roots(orfreemorphemes).

Internationalization

Nation—thecentralcoreof(heword,whichiscalled(hebaseorroot.

-al,-izeand-ationareaffixes,whicharethegrammaticalmorphemes

@Root/Baseform

Arootisthebasicformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossof

identity.

Crystal1985

A“rootisthatpartofawordformthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixes

havebeenremoved”

Bauer1983

Amorphemewhichisthebasicpartofawordandwhichmay,inmanylanguages,occuron

itsown.

Threecases:

(a)Rootsmaybejoinedtootherroots

house+hold,class+mate

(b)Rootsmaytakeaffixes

manly,coldness

(c)Rootsmaytakecombingforms

biorhythm

©Affixes:Aletterorsound,orgroupofletters,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchanges

themeaningorfunctionoftheword

(a)Tothebeginningoftheaword(aprefix)“unkind”

(b)Totheendofaword(suffix)“kindnessv

(c)withinaword(infix)foot/feetn.

©Stem:Thatpartofawordtowhichaninflectionalaffixisorcanbeadded

(a)asimplestemconsistingofonlyonemorpheme(root)“work”

(b)arootplusaderivationalaffix“work+er”

(c)twoormoreroots“work+shop"

friendshipsfriendshipfriend

；I

stemroot

work—worker—workers

work—workshop-workshops

©Suppletion:Atypeofirregularityinwhichthereisacompletechangeintheshapeofa

wordinitsvariousinflectedforms.

Good—better-best

Tall-taller—tallest

(2)Inflectionalandderivational

Affixesmaybeinflectionalorderivational,bothbeinggrammaticalmorphemesratherthan

lexicalmoiphemes.Inflectionalaffixesexpresssuchfeaturesasplurality,case,tense,andaspect.

TherearceightinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishandalltheotheraffixesarcderivational.

(a)Nouninflectionalsuffix

•Pluralmarker-s:boys

•Possessivemarker's:Tom's

(b)Verbinflectionalsjffixes

•3ihpersonsingularpresent-s:runs

•pasttensemarker-ed:waited

•progressivemarker-ing:speaking

•pastparticiple-en:eaten

(c)Adjectiveinflectionalsuffixes

•comparativemarker-er:faster

•superlativemarker-est:fastest

(3)FreeandBoundmorphemes

Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitselfasaword.

Put,girl,cry

Aboundmorphemeneveroccursaloneasawordandisalwaysjoinedwithother

morphemes.

De-,hood-,-ed

Asummaryofmerphemeclassificationisschematizedasfollows:

Morphemes

contentwordsfunctionwordsinflectional

3.Features

Featuresofmorphologycanbesummedupinthefollowingphonological,syntacticand

semanticaspects:

(I)PhonologicalFeatures

①Somemorphemesmayhaveonesoundastheirphoneticrepresentation,e.g.the

adjectivesuffix/i/insmjfor/a/inasynunethcal.

②Thenumbersofmorphemesandsyllablesinawordarenotcorrespondentwitheach

other.Forinstance,cutisonemorphemewhichhappenstoconsistofonesyllable.Yetincuts,

(hethirdpersonsingularpresentmorpheme{s}isnotasyllable.Socutsisaonesyllable

wordcomposedoftwomorphemes

③Sometimesdifferentmorphemeshave(hesamesound,asinmouth(foreating)and

mouth(ofariver).Thesameistrueofaffixes,e.g.nouninflectionalsuffixescanallsound

alike.Ofthederivationalaffixes,thereisaprefixout-,asinoutrun,withthemeaningof'better,

greater,ormorethan'andthereisanotherprefixout-asinoutpouroroutsidemeaning'out'.

④Somemorphemes,mostlyirregularpluralnounsandverbs,maynotbephonetically

represented.Forinstance,wordslikefishmatchwordslikebooksinthesensethatfishisthe

pluralformofthesingularfish.Theonlydistinctionisthatfortheregularnounslikenook,

theirpluralmorphemesarerepresentedbyhephoneme/s/but,incontrast,fish,thoughpluralin

form,hasnopluralmorpheme.Inthiscase,thewordfishcanbeconsideredasconsistingofa

baseandanaffix.Butunlikethepluralmorpheme{s},(hisaffixdosenotappearin(heplural

fish.ItiscalledzeroaffixandsymbolizedasO.Sothepluralaffixhasazeroallomorphin

fish.

(2)SyntacticFeatures

①Differenttypesofmorphemesservedifferentfunction.Inflectionalaffixesand

functionwordssuchasprepositions,articles,pronouns,andconjunctionsindicatesyntactic

relationsbetweendifferentwordsinasentence,e.g.thethirdpersonsingularpresentmorpheme

{s}inworksshowsagreementwiththethirdpersonpresentsingularsubjectoftheverb.

②Intheformationofaword,affixes,bothinflectionalandderivational,arenotjustput

togetheratrandom.Theymustbearrangedinsequencetoformactualwords.Theaffixationisa

step-by-stepprocess.Inotherwords,theyhaveahierarchicalinternalstructure,appearingina

rigidlysequentialorder:wefindsubconsciously,butnotlysubconsciousorsublyconscious.An

inflcctioalsuffixesaddedtoawordalwaysmarkstheendstepofwordformation,i.e.comeslast

inaword.Intermsofthisrelativeorder,inflectionalsuffixesfollowderivationalsuffixes.The

wordprc-existcnccshasthefollowingorderinitsformation.

Exist----------►existence----------►preexistence----------------►preexistences

Rather(han

Exist---------►existence---------►existences----------------------►preexistences

©Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethepartofspeechofbasesasderivationalaffixesdo.

(3)SemanticFeatures

Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethemeaning.Forinstance,awordsuchaswalkedissimply

thepasttenseofwalkandawordsuchasbooksissimplythepluralofbook.Neitherwalkednor

bookshasanyadditionalmeaning.Incontrast,derivationalaffixeschangethemeaning.For

instance,substandard(derivationalaffixessub-+basestandard)hasameaningrelation:*lower

than*+'base(adjective)

ChapterThree:WordFormation

1.Mainways:

(l)Compounding:(heformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems

“alexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonestemandfunctioningbothgrammatically

andsemanticallyasasingleword”(Quirketal1985)

•Characteristicsofcompounding:

(a)Phoneticfeatures

(b)Semanticfeatures

(c)Grammaticalfeatures

•Formationofcompounding

(a)Nouncompounding

n+nmoonwalk

n+vtoothache

v+ncrybaby

a+ndeadline

n+v-ingair-conditioning

v-ing+ncleaninglady

n+v-crstockholder

adv+vdownfall

v+advhave-not

v-ing+advgoing-over

adv+v-ingup-bringing

(b)Adjcctivccompounding

n+v-inglaw-abiding

a+v-ingeasy-going

n+a:warweary

a+adeaf-mute

n+v-ed:custom-built

a(adv)+v-ed:far-fetched

n(a)+n-ed:short-sighted

num+n:ten-storey

num+n-cd:onc-eycd

adv+v-ing:out-going

v-ed+adv:worn-out

(c)Verbcompounding

Throughconversion

nickname(n)tonickname;moonlight(n)tomoonlight

Throughbackformation

lip-readingtolip-read;massproductiontomassproduce

(2)Derivation

Affixation:theformationofwordsbyaddingword-formationorderivationalaffixes

iostems

Prefixation:theformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems

(a)Negativeprefixes:a-,dis-,in-,il,ir-,im,non-,un,

amoral,disloyal,non-smoker

(b)Rcvcrsativcprefixes:de-,dis-,un-,

decentralize,disunite

(c)Pcjorativcprefixes:mal-,mis-,pseudo-,

maltreat,pseudo-friend

(d)Prefixesofdegreeorsize:aech-,extra,hyper-,macro-,mini-,sub-,out-,

super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,

mini-election,outlive

(e)Prefixesoforientationandattitude:anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-

anti-govemment,pro-democracy(supporting)

(f)Locativeprefixes:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-tele-,trans-

extraordinary,telecommunication

(g)Prefixesoftimeandorder:ex-,fore-,post-,pre-,re-,

ex-professor,post-election

(h)Numberprefixes:bi-,multi-,poly-,hemi-,tri-,uni-

multi-purpose,tricycle

(i)Miscellaneousprefixes:auto-,neo-,pan.vice-,

Pan-Europcan.vice-chairman

Suffixation:theformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostem

(a)Nounsuffixes

a.Denominalnouns

Concrete:addedtonounbasestoproduceconcretenouns

-eer,-er,ess,ette-,-letbooklet,hostess,engineer

Abstract:attheendofnountoformabstractnouns

-age,-dom-,-ery-,-ry,-hood,-ing,-ism,-shipadulthood,farming,friendship

b.deverbalnouns

,withverbstemstocreatenounsdenotingpeople

-ant,-ee,-ent,-er,-or,assistant,respondent

,denotingaction,result,process,slate

-age,-al,-ance,ition,-tion,-sion,ion,-ence,-ing,mentjudgment,decision,protection

c.de-adjcctivenouns

-ity,-ncsspopularity,happiness

d.Nounandadjectivesuffixes

relatingtohumanbeingsornationalitynames

-ese,-an,-istChinese,Lebanese,violinist,Elizabethan

(b)Adjectivesuffixes

a.denomialsuffixes

-cd,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,lady-like,nameless,coldish

historic(importantinhistory)historical(ofhistory)

classic(great,memorable)classical(ofLatinandGreek)

comic(ofcomedy)comical(funny)

economic(intheeconemy)economical(money-saving)

electric(poweredbyelectricity)electrical(ofelectricity)

b.deverbalsuffixes

-able,iblc,-icc.-alive,sivc,washable,decisive,productive

(c)Adverbsuffiex

-ly,-ward,-wiseonward,clockwise

(d)Verbsuffixes

-ate,-en,-ify,-ty,-ze,ise,beautify,modernize,strengthen

(3)Conversion

Theformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass

Hewasknockedoutinthefirstround.(n)

Roundthenumberofftothenearesttenth,(v)

Theneighborsgatheredroundourbarbecue(piep)

Themoonwasbrightandround(a)

Peoplecamefromallthecountryround(adv)

(a)Conversiontonoun

l.Vcrbtonoun

a.Sta(e(ofmindorsensation)

doubtthestateofdoubting

wantWhatiswanted

b.Eventoractivity

searchtheactivityofsearching

laughtheactoflaughing

c.Resultoftheaction

catchwhatiscaught

findwhatisfound

d.doerof(heaction

helponewhohelps

cheatonewhocheats

e.Toolorinstrumenttodoactionwith

coverusedtocoversomething

wrapusedtowrapsomething

f.Placeoftheaction

passwhereonehas(opass

walkaplaceforwalking

(2)Adjectivetonoun

a.Wordsfullyconverted

Commonadjectives:

awhitealiberal

anativeaRepublican

finalsnecessaries

drinkablesvaluables

participlesandothers:

agivenadrunk

youngmarriednewly-weds

b.Wordspartiallyconverted

Thepoor,thewounded,thepoorer,themoreaffluent,(hemorecorrupt

(3)Miscellaneousconversion

Nounsconcertedfromconjunctions,modals,finiteverbs,prepositions,etc

a)Wouldyoulikeawithorawithout?

b)Bettertobeanalso-ranthananever-was.

c)Hisargumentcontainstoomanyifsandbuts.

d)Lifeisfullofupsanddowns.

e)Rubberglovesareamustifyourskinissensilivetowashingpowders.

f)Patriotisms,nationalisms,andanyotherismsyou'dliketoname.

(b)Conversiontoverbs

1)Nountoverb

a.ToputinoronN:

Topocketthemoneytoputmoneyintothepocket

b.TogiveNortoprovidewithN:tosheltertherefugees

Togivesheltertotherefugees

c.ToremoveNfrom

Toskinthelambtoremovetheskinfromthelamb

d.TodowithN

Topumpwatertobringwaterwithapump

e.Tobeoractas

Tonursethebabytobethenurseforthebaby

f.Tom