跨文化非言语交际中的语用失误分析

Contents

Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................i

Abstract...............................................................................................................................ii

摘要.................................................................iii

1.Introduction...................................................................................................................4

2.NonverbalCommunication..........................................................................................4

2.1DefinitionofNonverbalCommunication..........................................................2

2.2ClassificationofNonverbalCommunication....................................................3

2.2.1Kinesics......................................................................................................3

2.2.2Paralanguage.............................................................................................3

2.2.3ObjectLanguage.......................................................................................3

2.2.4EnvironmentalLanguage...........................................................................3

2.3FunctionofNonverbalCommunication............................................................4

3.TypesandManifestationsofPragmaticFailuresinNonverbalCommunication....4

3.1KinesicsPragmaticFailure.................................................................................4

3.2ParalanguagePragmaticFailures.......................................................................5

3.3ObjectLanguagePragmaticError.....................................................................6

3.4EnvironmentalPragmaticError.........................................................................7

4.StrategiestoAvoidNonverbalPragmaticFailure.......................................................8

4.1CultivatingCulturalEmpathy.............................................................................8

4.2UnderstandingtheCharacteristicsofNonLinguisticBehavior......................9

4.3ImprovingLanguageSkills...............................................................................10

5.Conclusion...................................................................................................................11

Bibliography......................................................................................................................13

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Acknowledgements

Firstofall,Iwouldliketothankmysupervisor,hegavemevaluableadviceand

theprocessofwritingpapersinmanyconstructivesuggestions.Hewalkedallmystage

inwritingthispaper.Withouthisinsightfuladviceandenthusiasticencouragement,I

couldnotfinishthefile.

Second,IwouldliketoexpressmythankstotheprofessorsandteachersatAlma

mater,fortheyhavehelpedmealotandtaughtmealotduringmyfour-yearstudy

here,nomatterintheclassesoroutoftheclasses.Withouttheirhelp,Icannever

achieveasmuchasIhavenow.

Finally,mythanksgotomybelovedfamilyfortheyhavegivenmegreatsupport

andencouragementduringmyfour-yearstudy,withoutthese,Ievencouldn'tfinishmy

collegestudy.Ialsowouldliketothankmygoodfriendsandmyclassmateswhohave

givenmegreathelpallthetime.

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Abstract

Withthedeepeningofreformandopeningupandthecontinuousdevelopmentof

economy,Chinaisincreasinglyintegratingintotheinternationalcommunity,making

closerandcloserlinkwiththeworld,andtheinternationalexchangeactivities

presentinganunprecedentedactivesituation.Ininternationalexchangesand

cooperation,peopletendtofocusontheavoidanceofcommunicativefailure.However,

mostoftheresearchexpertsbelievethatinthefaceofsocialcommunication,the

informationcontentisonlyabout35%throughspeechact,theotheristhrough

non-verbal(orvicelanguage)behaviorofthetransfer.Atthesametime,verbal

communicationcanbeeffectivelycarriedoutinalargedegree,whichcanbecarried

outinalargedegree.Non-verbalcommunicationsystem,asanauxiliarylanguagein

communication,itpenetrates,completes,andcoexistswithlanguage.Therefore,the

researchonpragmaticfailuresinnon-verbalcommunicationshouldbereferredtoan

importantposition.Thispaper,fromthecharacteristicsandfunctionsofthenon-speech

transaction,theauthordiscussesthetypesandperformanceofthenon-verbal

communication,analyzesthecausesofpragmaticfailure,andfinallyfindsoutthe

countermeasurestoavoidthenon-verbalpragmaticfailure.

Keywords:Cross-Culture;Nonverbalcommunication;Pragmaticfailure

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摘要

随着改革开放的不断深入和经济社会的不断发展，中国日益融入国际社会，

同世界的联系越来越紧密，国际交流活动呈现出前所未有的活跃局面。在越来越

受世界各国重视的国际交流与合作中，人们往往侧重于规避影响交际效果甚至导

致交际失败的言语性语用失误。然而绝大多数研究专家认为，在面对面交际中，

信息的社交内容只有35%左右是通过言语行为，其他都是通过非言语（或称副语言）

行为传递的。同时，言语交际在很大程度上要依靠非言语交际才能得以有效地进

行。非言语作为辅助的交际系统与语言在交际中相互渗透、相互补充、唇齿相依、

互为共存。因此，对非言语交际语用失误的研究理当被提到重要的位置上。本文

从非言语交易的特点和功能出发，探讨了非言语交际用语的失误类型和表现，分

析语用失误的原因，最后寻找到避免非言语语用失误的对策。

关键词：跨文化；斗言语交际；语用失误

111

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LIntroduction

Withthedevelopmentofculturalexchanges,manypeopleacrosslanguageand

culturalbarrierstocommunicationwchaveexperienced.Thecommunicationfailureis

largelyduetothecommunicationpragmaticfailure.PragmaticFailurepragmaticsofa

hottopicrecentlyattractedwidespreadattentionathomeandabroadlinguistsand

languageteachers.Incross-culturalcommunication,notonlytobeconcernedaboutthe

correctness,butalsotopayattentiontotheappropriatenessoftheuseoflanguage.

Undertheinfluenceofpragmaticresearch,focusingonthetransformationoccurred.

Infact,inrealcommunicationwithpeopleinothercountriesorregions,many

Chinesepeoplefindthemselvesinanawkwardsituation.Althoughtheirlanguage

skills,theycanspeakfluentEnglish,buttheyoftenstilllackinginitsabilitytousethe

languageofappropriatenesstouseandunderstand.Whichappearsmainly

misunderstandingorpragmaticfailurecommunicationsfailure,whichisunusualin

interculturalverbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication.

Incross-culturalcommunication,ifapersonwhocommitsthewrong

language,shewillemergeanumberofrude,unfriendly,evenaggressiveriskbecauseit

reflectshercapacityasaperson,becauseshecannotexpresswhatistheexpression

meaning,andunderstandwhatiswhatismeanttobedelivered.

Pragmaticfailuresconstituteaveryimportantsourceofintercultural

miscommunication.Ithasbeenprovedthatlearners'pragmaticcompetencedoesnot

positivelycorrelatewiththeirlinguisticbackground.Inotherwords,pragmaticfailures

willnotvanishbythemselvesasthelearnersgetmorelinguisticknowledge.Oriented

topicstochoosethemostcompellingreasonis:First,asaseniorEnglishstudents

learningEnglishhasmorethan13years,theauthorsmakepragmaticfailureriskverbal

andnonverbaltime;secondly,LanguageinInterculturalCommunicationbymistakes,

especiallyhiddensettings,nonverbalpragmaticfailureisinevitableaccured,thenon-

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verbalbehavior,itreflectsthesignificanceofspontaneoussubconscioussignificance.

Nonverbalbehaviorisusuallyculturalload,itiseasytoincurIntercultural

Communicationconflict.

2.NonverbalCommunication

2.1DefinitionofNonverbalCommunication

People'scommunicationactivitiesaredividedintoverbalcommunicationand

nonverbalcommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationreferstoallactsofspeechacts

otherthanintercourse.Itisanexchangeofinformationprocessthroughgestures,body

movements,facialexpressions,etc.teapotthatcommunicationinthefaceof70%of

theinformationistransmittedbywayofnon-verbal,andonly30%oftheinformation

isthroughlanguagedelivery(Samovar,2000).Mehrabianalsopointsoutthat"inthe

dialogue,93%oftheinformationistransmittedthroughnon-linguisticmeans,ofwhich

38%isthroughsound,andthe55%isthroughfacialexpressions',(Mehrabian,

1981).Visibleandnon-verbalcommunicationindailycommunicationrolecannotbe

ignored.PragmaticFailureconceptputforwardbytheBritishlinguistThomas1983,

shedefinesitas"donotunderstandthemeaningoflanguage.."Thomaswasdivided

intotwocategories:PragmaticFailureandpragmaticfailure.Thomaspragmaticfailure

definitionsandclassifications,seemstoignoretheimportantaspectsofpragmatic

failure:non-verbalcommunicationPragmaticFailure.Infact,non-verbal

communicationtherearealotofpragmaticfailurescanbecalledpragmaticfailure.

2

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2.2ClassiHcationofNonverbalCommunication

Nonverbalcommunicationcanbeclassifiedintofouraspects:kinesics,

paralanguage,objectlanguageandenvironmentlanguage.

2.2.1Kinesics

Il'sthestudyofbodylanguageswhichincludegestures,postures,oculesics(eye

behavior)andfacialexpressions(Dodd,1998:135-149).Itisoftencalledbody

languagebasedonthefunctionofeachmovementinhumancommunication.

2.2.2Paralanguage

Deputylanguageisasoundaccompaniedbyspokenlanguagetoenhanceits

meaning.Atthesametime,itisthesevoices,non-vocabularywords,additionalwords.

"Symbolicspeechcues,meaningnotonlythroughverbalandnonverbalcues,andthe

voicequalitythroughavarietyoflanguagesystemsconferred"(Dodd,1991:220).

2.2.3ObjectLanguage

Objectlanguagecaneitherbeintentionalorunintentionaldisplayofmaterial

things.Generallyspeaking,objectlanguageincludesphysicalappearance,clothes,

ornaments,smellandcolor.Theycanseverashighlysignificantmessagesthatwc

offertoothers.

2.2.4EnvironmentalLanguage

Environmentallanguageincludingspatialinformation,timeinformation,etc.The

spatialinformationincludestheattitudeoftreatingthecrowded,thedomainidea,the

bodydistance,thearrangementoftheseats,etc.Timeinformationisincludedinthe

calculationoftimeandattitude.

3

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2.3FunctionofNonverbalCommunication

Generallyspeaking,nonverbalcommunicationhasthreefunctions:

Firstly,exchangingideas.Forinstance,peopleusuallyusebodylanguagesas

nodded,waved,shookhisheadtosaytheirdisagreements.Also,intextdescriptioncan

oftenseebowingandgesticulating,dancing,timid,enraptured,flirt,eyesandother

bodylanguageimagesdescription.

Secondly,expressingemotion.Astearsmeangrief(sometimestheymeansjoy),

laughsmeanjoy,gnashingtheteethinangermeanshate.

Thirdly,expressingattitudeandrelationship.Etiquetteisarespectforpeople.The

attitudeandpositionshowtherelationshipbetweenthespeakers,suchashestandslike

asoldierwhenheistalking.

3.TypesandManifestationsofPragmaticFailuresin

NonverbalCommunication

Non-verbalcommunicationpragmaticfailuremainlyinthefollowingaspects:

environmentallanguagepragmaticfailure,pragmaticfailureofbodylanguage,object

languagepragmaticfailureandpragmaticfailureofthelanguage.

3.1KinesicsPragmaticFailure

Kincsicslanguageincludesallpartsofthebody,thebody'sbasicposture,andthe

communicationinformationprovidedbythebasicmanners.Intheprocessof

communication,itthebodyisnotappropriate,itwillhaveamisunderstanding,which

leadstothefailureofcommunication.SuchasinChineseculture,whentheaudience

ortheaudienceapplause,theperformerorthespeakerhimselfwillapplaud,which

means"friendly"or"thankyou".InEnglishculture,thiskindofbehavioris”nol

modest","pride"M.TheBritishpeopleinthestreet,inordertobefriendly,andnoother

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4

reasoncansmileatstrangers,andtheChinesepeopleifnospecialreasonnottosmile

atstrangers.Ifsomeoneinthestreethetrippedandfell,theBritishpeopleisnotlaugh

iflaughterwillbeconsideredimpolite,theChinesepeoplewillnotmaliciouslaughter.

InChineseculture,ifyoustareatsomeone,youcansayitiscuriousorsurprised,but

inEnglishculture,staringatsomeone,willbeconsideredrude,andmakepeoplevery

embarrassed.Becauseofthedifferentculture,peoplehavedifferentunderstandingto

manybodylanguage,therefore,tounderstandthesedifferencesincross-cultural

communication,avoidthepragmaticfailureofbodylanguage.

Forexample:AChinesestudentAmeetsaBritishstudenlPeterinthestreet,he

said:

A:HiPeter.(HepatsPeter'sshoulder.)

Peter:Hi(Facewithoutexpression,asifthereisanawkward)

Thisisakindofnon-verbalcommunication.BecausetheBritishbeautyhasnot

liketotouchortakethehabitoftouching,iftrue,thensaid:"Sorry"andtheChinese

peopletoseeanacquaintance,takealookateachothersaid"longtimenosee",'itis

warm'*.Adidnotnoticethis,andputhishabitsonPeter,whichledtothefailureof

communicationinthecontext.

3.2ParalanguagePragmaticFailures

Thepragmaticfailureofthevicelanguageistheimproperuseofsome

non-semanticsounds,ortheerrorscausedbytheimpropergraspofthesilenceand

discourseconversion.Nonsemanticsounds,suchasblowingawhistle,intheUnited

States,theyoungpeopletothegirlisagoodimpression,praisethegirlbeautiful,

hopingtoattracteachother'sattention.InChineseifyoungpeopleofgirlwhistlewill

beconsideredaroguebehavior,morefrivolous.Thereisabigdifferenceintheattitude

ofsilenceandspeechconversion,theChineseandEnglishspeakingcountriesarealso

verydifferent.Chineseindealingwiththespeaker,silenceisnotconsent,whileBritish

peopleoftenendorsethesilence.InChineseandEnglish,theEnglishspeakingpeople

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don'lnotfeelaccustomedthatChinesepeopleoftentakethesilentattitude,suchasthe

classofChinesestudentsarestilllistening,donotlovetoaskquestions,theChinese

peopleofteninsilencetorefusetoanswer,intheBritishandAmericancountries,this

isaninsulttothequestioner,isthelackoftrainingbehavior.InEnglishspeaking

countries,aslongasyouhearquestionsmustanswer,eventhanthestrongsilentbe

wideofthemark.AlthoughtheChinesepeoplebelievethatsilenceisgolden,butif

usedincommunicationandtheBritishbeauty,veryeasytocausethefailureof

communication,andevencauseagreatermisunderstanding.

3.3ObjectLanguagePragmaticError

Theobjectlanguageincludestheskinmodificationofthecommunication

information,thecoverofthebodyodor,theclothingandthemakeup,thepersonal

articles,thefurnitureandthevehicleetc.Inthecommunicationprocess,whento

behaveinappropriateorbecauseoftheculturaldifferencesexistcertaindifference

leadstocommunicationmisunderstandingtheguestbodylanguage,objectlanguage

pragmaticfailureappears.Takethedressasanexample,itcannotonlyshowthe

person'soccupation,status,temperament,butalsocanshowtheculture,loveandlife

habits,etc.Differentclothesoftenconveydifferentcommunicationinformation,soina

certainsituationifthedresscodeisinappropriate,itwillproducetheobjectlanguage

pragmaticfailure,itisboundtoaffectthecommunicationeffect.Wearethemost

commonthiskindofpragmaticfailureissomeforeignteacherswearingrippedjeans

orshorts,orbarefootandwearingsandalstostudentsinclass,devoidofaChinese

teacherofimposingappearance,giveapersonthefeelingverycasual,donotattach

importancetotheteaching,evenoflecturesisnotrespected.

Forexample,peopleinwesterncountrieslikesunbathing,peopleoftenliesonthe

beachtoobtainthesun'sexposuretotanningoftheskinasasymbolofhealth,andthe

Chinesepeoplearenotunderstandingthishabit,inChina,whiteskinisabeautiful

symbol,Chineseladyafraidofsunexposure,alwaystryingtomaketheirownskin

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whiteandtender.

3.4EnvironmentalPragmaticError

Environmentallanguageincludestimeinformationandspatialinformation.Time

informationistheattitudeofpeopletothetimeandthecalculationofthetime;the

spaceinformationisthecommunicationbetweenthebodydistance,theterritoryofthe

idea,thearrangementoftheseatsandtheattitudetowardscrowded.Thepragmatic

failureoftheenvironmentreferstotheimproperhandlingofthetimeinformationor

spatialinformation,becauseoftheculturaldifferences,theuseofdifferentlimeor

spacemode,intheinteractionofpragmaticfailure,resultinginahugeculturalconflict.

Becauseofculturaldifferences,peopleindifferentcountriesornationalitieshave

differentbasicideas,suchashowtobepunctual,howtobepunctual,fastandslow,

andtoobservethedifferentattitudesoftime,andthedifferentunderstandingoftime.

Chinesepeopleaccepttheinvitationtovisit,inordertoshowpoliteness,oftenwill

arriveinadvance,ifinvitedtothehomewillalsohelptheownertopreparemeals.And

Americanstendtobelateforawhile,inordertogivetheownerabetterlimeto

prepare.

Peopleindifferentspatialinformationinthecommunication,theytendtobelieve

thatisthewaytheydealwithspaceand,therefore,duetothedifferentculturesand

misunderstandingorconflict.Everyonehasacertainamountofspace,personalspace

peoplehavedifferentunderstandingandhabits.

TheBritishrespectpersonalareasoffamilymembers,includingchildrenhave

personalspace;incontrast,theChinesepeopleathomewithoutsuchastrongpersonal

senseofthedoiiiaiii,paiculsuflcuwithoutpuriuisbivulofreelyenterchildrenrouin,

flippingthroughthechilditems,evenreadchildren'sdiary;Chinesecultureattaches

greatimportancetocooperation,morelikegroup,therefore,insomepublicplaces,the

crowdismorecrowded,peopleareaccustomedto,andpeopleinwesterncountries

generallydifficulttotolerate.Peopleinthecommunicationprocess,accordingtothe

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degreeofclosenessbetweenpeopletodistinguishseveraldifferentdistance,

respectivelyfromtheindividualandpublicdistance,closedistanceandsocialdistance.

Inthecrowdedbus,thepeopleofEnglishspeakingcountriesfeelisnotused,tryingto

avoidcollisionwithpeople,theChinesepeoplecanbehappyandpleasedwithoneself.

PeopleintheEnglishspeakingcountriesofthecrowdedphenomenonisalsoverynot

accustomedtotheChinesepeopleinthequeuewhentheystandclosetoeachother,

theyareinlinewiththebodybeforeandafterthebodytomaintainacertaindistance,

donotwanttocontact,forfearthatotherswilltouchtheirown.

4.StrategiestoAvoidNonverbalPragmaticFailure

4.1CultivatingCulturalEmpathy

Asisknowntoall,languageandcultureareinseparable.Toachievesuccessful

cross-culturalcommunication,languagelearnersinadditiontolearningawealthof

languageknowledge,butalsothroughvariouschannels,consciouslylearningthetarget

languageculturebackgroundknowledge,forexample,toseeauthenticforeignclassics

orfilmandtelevisionworks,readingforeignnewspapersandmagazines,etc.Onlyin

thisway,languagelearnerscanbemorekeenlyawareoftheworldofpluralism,and

in-depthunderstandingofthenationalcharacteristicsoflanguageandculture,found

thedifferenceofthecultureofthetargetlanguageandnonverbalcommunication

behaviorcharacteristics,sothat"knowthyself.Intheconditionofhavingarich

knowledgeoflanguageandculture,imagineyourselfinthetargetlanguageculture

background,reproducethemselves,andrealizethetransference.

Wcaretryingtodevelopculturalempathyinordertobesuccessfulas

interculturalcommunicators,andwealsoseethattheapplicationofempathyin

interculturalcommunicationmightservetocreateamoresensitive,respectful,

harmoniousandpeacefulclimateforcommunicatorsininterculturalcommunicative

context.SunYaandDaiLingthinksthatsuccessfulandharmoniousintercultural

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communicationwillfallbackoncommunicators'culturalempathy.Throughstudying

culturalempathy,wealleastcanbeconsciousofhowotherswouldliketobetreated

fromtheirownperspectives.Wcmaynotwantorbeabletoprovidethattreatment,but

thevaryactofacknowledgingculturaldifferencesandattemptingculturalempathyis

profoundlyrespectfulandaffirmingofpeoplefromotherculturalbackgrounds.

4.2UnderstandingtheCharacteristicsofNonLinguistic

Behavior

Culturaltolerance,accordingtoProf.QianGuanlian(1997:223),isakindof

culturalattitudewhichoneholds.Vbgt(2000:3)seesitas^intentionalself-restraintin

thefaceofsomethingonedislikes,objectsto,findsthreatening,orotherwisehasa

negativeattitudetoward-usuallyinordertomaintainasocialorpoliticalgrouporto

promoteharmonyinagroupM.Thethesisholdsthattheoptimalandidealgoalfor

communicatorsininterculturalcommunicationtoseekforistheharmonious

relationshipand“culturaltacit"(encyclopedicunsaid)(YangMin,1998),whichare

mainlycharacterizedbyculturaltolerance.Ofcourse,theharmonysoughtcanbe

short-termorlong-term.Themoderneducationisdiverse,sotoleranceshouldbebased

ondifferenceanddiversity.Therefore,weattachgreatimportancetodeveloping

tolerance,especially,developingstudents'culturaltolerancewhencommunicatingwith

peoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.Communicativecompetenceindeveloping

culturaltoleranceisalsoimportant.Communicativecompetencewillundoubtedly

meanlanguageskills,butitsmainfocusisonsocialandculturalsignificanceofthe

rules,anydiscourseintuitivegroups.

Communicativecompetenceincludesknowledgethespeaker-hearerhasofwhat

constitutesappropriateaswellascorrectlanguagebehaviorandalsoofwhat

constituteseffectivelanguagebehaviorinrelationtoparticularcommunicativegoals

(Ellis,2000:13).Fromanotherperspective,communicativecompetenceincludingthe

abilitytonon-verbal,nonverbalallthedifferentsemanticknowledgetwocultures,an

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abilitytobothsendandreceivenon-verbalsignals.Therefore,weneedtodevelopour

communicativecompetenceindifferentcountriesverbalandnonverbalculture.

Inordertodevelopculturaltoleranceandinterculturalcommunicative

competence,wcneedrecognizetheimportanceoflearningtorecognizeourown

communicationstyle-themannerinwhichwepresentourselvestoothers.Samovar,

PorterandStefaniarguethat“bycommunicationstyleismeantthetopicspeople

prefertodiscuss,Theirfavoriteformofinteractiveceremony,parameters,

self-disclosureanddepthofmutualparticipation,theirmutualneeds.Itincludeswhat

extent,transmissionofinformationmaterial,andtheextenttoadjusttothesamelevel

ofsignificancecommunicatorrelyonthesamechannel,sound,verbal,thatis,thefacts

ortheemotionalcontentofthemessage.nThatis,allofushaveuniquewaysof

interactingandcommunicatingwhenweencounteranotherpartyinintercultural

communication.

4.3ImprovingLanguageSkills

Interculturalcommunicationscholarsplacemoreemphasisoncontextualfactors

inadditiontoviewingcommunicativecompetenceaseffectiveandappropriate

interaction.Theyconceiveofcommunicativecompetencenotonlyaseffectiveand

appropriateinteractionbetweenpcople,butequallyeffectiveandappropriate

interactionofpeoplebelongingtoaparticularenvironment.Thispositioningissimilar

tocommunicationscholarsemphasizecontext-specificdisability.Thus,intheabove

explanation,wetrytodefine"interculturalcommunicativecompetence"asfollows:in

aparticularenvironment,effectivecommunicationandbehaviorappropriately

performed,causingtheexpectedresponse.Thedefinitionshowsthatcompetentpersons

neednotonlyknowhowtofulfilltheircommunicativegoalsusingthisability,butalso

thefinalgoalofforeignlanguageeducationistotrainanddevelopcommunicators*

interculturalcommunicativecompetence.

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io

Communicativecompetenceiscomposedoftwolinguisticcompetenceand

pragmaticcompetence.LanguageandcontextreferstoIheabilitytohelpthe

productionandtheabilitytoinferknowledgeofthelanguagewiththehelpofaword

orsentencemeaning,capacitygrammaticallycorrectsentence.Pragmaticcompetence

isthecleveruseoflanguageabilitytocommunicate,includingtheabilityto

appropriatelyproduceandinterpretutterances(HeZiran,2001:201).Thesetwokinds

ofcompetenceinfluencetheeffectivenessofcommunicationindifferentaspects.

Pragmaticcompetenceismoreimportantsoastocommunicateeffectively.HeZiran

pointsoutthattolearnalanguageistodevelopthepragmaticcompetence,thatis,to

usealanguageincommunication.Intraditionalforeignlanguageteaching,only

emphasizelanguageskillscanbedone,whileignoringthepragmaticcompetence.

Studentsareonlytoldtomasterandusecorrectpronunciation,grammar,wordsand

idioms,asaresult,theycanproducegrammaticallycorrectutterancesbutdonotknow

towhom,inwhatmanner,andinwhatcircumstance,theycanusethem,i.e.they

cannotusetheutterancesappropriat