Chap_20收入不平等与贫困(经济学原理,曼昆,中英文双语).ppt

1、,Income Inequality and Poverty收入不平等与贫困,Chapter 20,Income Inequality and Poverty,“A persons earnings depend on the supply and demand for that persons labor, which in turn depend on natural ability, human capital, compensating differentials, discrimination, and so on.”,收入不平等与贫困,“一个人的收入取决于这个人的劳动供给和对这个人

2、的劳动需求，供给与与需求又取决于天赋能力、人力资本、补偿性工资差别、歧视等等。”,The Measurement of Inequality,How much inequality is there in our society? How many people live in poverty? What problems arise in measuring the amount of inequality? How often do people move among income classes?,不平等的衡量,在我们社会中不平等程度有多大? 有多少人生活在贫困之中? 衡量不平等程度时引

3、起了哪些问题? 他们通常如何在各收入阶层之间流动?,Table 1 The Distribution of Income in the United States: 2000,表1. 美国的收入分配: 2000年,组别 年家庭收入(美元),最低的1/5 低于24 000 第二个1/5 24 00141 000 中间的1/5 41 00161 378 第四个1/5 61 37991 700 最高的1/5 91 701 及更多 最高的5 160 250 及更多,U.S. Income Inequality,Imagine that you. . . . . . lined up all of th

4、e families in the economy according to their annual income. . . . divided the families into five equal groups (bottom fifth, second fifth, etc.) . . . computed the share of total income that each group of families received.,美国的收入不平等,设想你. . . . . . 要根据年收入对所有家庭进行排队。 . . . 把家庭分为五个相等的集团 (最低的五分之一，第二个五分之一

5、，等等) . . . 计算每个家庭集团所得到的总收入份额。,Table 2 Income Inequality in the United States,Copyright2004 South-Western,表2. 美国的收入不平等,U.S. Income Inequality,If income were equally distributed across all families, each one-fifth of families would receive one-fifth (20 percent) of total income.,美国收入不平等,如果收入平等地分配到所有家庭

6、中，每五分之一的家庭应该得到五分之一（20）的收入。,From 1935-1970, the distribution of income gradually became more equal. In more recent years, this trend has reversed itself.,U.S. Income Inequality,从 1935年到1970年，分配逐渐变得更平等。 近年这种趋势又倒过来了。,美国收入不平等,U.S. Income Inequality,Reasons for Recent Increase in Income Inequality The fo

7、llowing have tended to reduce the demand for unskilled labor and raise the demand for skilled labor: Increases in international trade with low-wage countries Changes in technology Therefore, the wages of unskilled workers have fallen relative to the wages of skilled workers. This has resulted in inc

8、reased inequality in family incomes.,美国的收入不平等,近年来不平等增长的原因 下述情况倾向于减少不熟练劳动的需求并增加熟练劳动的需求: 与低工资国家之间的贸易的增长 技术变革 因此，不熟练工人的工资相对于熟练工人的工资下降。 这种相对工资变动提高了家庭收入的不平等。,Case Study: The Womens Movement and the Income Distribution案例研究：妇女运动与收入分配,The percentage of women who hold jobs has risen from about 32 percent in

9、the 1950s to about 54 percent in the 1990s. 有工作的妇女从50年代的32增加到 90年代的54。,Case Study: Income Equality around the World,案例研究: 世界各国的收入不平等,国家 最低的10 最高的10 比例,日本 4.8 21.7 4.5 德国 3.3 23.7 7.2 加拿大 2.8 23.8 8.5 印度 3.5 33.5 9.6 英国 2.6 27.3 10.5 中国 2.4 30.4 12.7 美国 1.8 30.5 16.9 俄罗斯 1.7 38.7 22.8 尼加拉瓜 1.6 40.8 2

10、5.5 墨西哥 1.6 41.1 25.7 南非 1.1 45.9 41.7 巴西 1.0 46.7 46.7,The Poverty Rate 贫困率,The poverty rate is the percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the poverty line. 贫困率家庭收入低于称为贫困线的绝对水平的人口百分比。,Problems in Measuring Inequality,The Poverty Line The poverty line i

11、s an absolute level of income set by the federal government for each family size below which a family is deemed to be in poverty. The poverty line is set by the federal government at roughly three times the cost of providing an adequate diet.,衡量不平等中的问题,贫困线 贫困线由联邦政府根据每个家庭规模确定的一种收入绝对水平，低于这一水平的家庭被认为处于贫

12、困状态。 贫困线是联邦政府按提供充分食物成本的大约3倍的标准确定的。,Figure 1 The Poverty Rate,Percent of the,Population,below Poverty,Line,1960,1965,1970,1975,1980,1985,1990,1995,2000,5,10,15,20,25,图1. 贫困率,低于贫困线的 人口百分比,1960,1965,1970,1975,1980,1985,1990,1995,2000,5,10,15,20,25,Problems in Measuring Inequality,The Poverty Line and I

13、ncome Inequality As economic growth pushes the entire income distribution upward, more families are pushed above the poverty line because the poverty line is an absolute rather than a relative standard. Despite continued economic growth in average income, the poverty rate has not declined. Although

14、economic growth has raised the income of the typical family, the increase in inequality has prevented the poorest families from sharing in this greater economic prosperity.,衡量不平等中的问题,贫困线和收入不平等 由于贫困线是绝对标准而不是相对标准，所以，随着经济增长把整个收入分配向上推动，更多的家庭被推到贫困线之上。 尽管平均收入持续增加，但贫困率并没有下降。 虽然经济增长增加了一般家庭的收入，但不平等的增长使最穷的家庭没

15、有分享到经济繁荣的果实。,Table 4 Who Is Poor?,表4. 谁是穷人,集团 贫困率,所有人 11.3 白人，非西班牙裔 7.5 黑人 22.0 西班牙裔人 21.2 亚洲，大洋州 10.7 孩子（18岁以下） 16.1 老人（64岁以上 ） 10.2 夫妻家庭 5.6 没有丈夫的女性家庭 27.9,Problems in Measuring Inequality衡量不平等中的问题,Three Facts About Poverty 关于贫困的三个事实 Poverty is correlated with race. 贫困与种族有关 Poverty is correlated w

16、ith age. 贫困与年龄有关 Poverty is correlated with family composition. 贫困与家庭结构有关,Problems in Measuring Inequality,Data on income distribution and the poverty rate give an incomplete picture of inequality in living standards because of the following: In-kind transfers The economic life cycle Transitory vers

17、us permanent income,衡量不平等中的问题,收入分配与贫困率数据所给出的生活水平不平等状况是不完全的，这是因为： 实物转移支付 经济的生命周期 暂时收入与持久收入,Problems in Measuring Inequality,In-Kind Transfers Transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cash are called in-kind transfers. Measurements of the distribution of income and the

18、 poverty rate are based on families money income. The failure to include in-kind transfers as part of income greatly affects the measured poverty rate.,衡量不平等中的问题,实物转移支付 实物转移支付以物品和劳务而不是以现金形式给予穷人的转移支付。 收入分配和贫困率的衡量是根据家庭的货币收入。 没有把实物转移支付作为收入的一部分包括在内，就大大地影响了所衡量的贫困率。,Problems in Measuring Inequality,The Ec

19、onomic Life Cycle The regular pattern of income variation over a persons life is called the life cycle. A young worker has a low income at the beginning of his or her career. Income rises as the worker gains maturity and experience. Income peaks at about age 50. Income falls sharply at retirement, a

20、round age 65.,衡量不平等中的问题,经济生命周期 在人的一生中有规律的收入变动模式被称为生命周期。 一个年轻工人刚参加工作时的收入是低的。 随着年龄变大和经验增加，收入增加。 在50岁左右，收入达到最高。 在65岁退休时，收入大幅度减少。,Problems in Measuring Inequality,Transitory versus Permanent Income Incomes vary because of random and transitory forces. Acts of nature Temporary layoffs due to illness or e

21、conomic conditions, etc. A familys ability to buy goods and services depends largely on its permanent income, which is its normal, or average, income. Permanent income excludes transitory changes in income.,衡量不平等中的问题,暂时收入与持久收入 收入还因为随机的和暂时的力量而变动。 自然力量 由于疾病或经济条件等因素造成的暂时失业。 一个家庭购买物品与劳务的能力主要取决于其持久收入，即正常

22、的或平均的收入。 持久收入不包括收入的暂时变动。,Economic Mobility 经济流动性,The movement of people among income classes is called economic mobility. 经济流动性人们在各收入阶层之间的变动。 Economic mobility is substantial in the U.S. economy. 经济流动性在美国经济中是相当大的。,Economic Mobility 经济流动性,Movements up and down the income ladder can be due to: 沿着收入阶梯上

23、下移动可能是由于： Good or bad luck. 好运气或坏运气 Hard work or laziness. 勤奋工作或懒惰 Persistence of economic success from generation to generation. 一代到另一代人经济成功的持续性。,Political Philosophy of Redistributing Income,What should the government do about economic inequality? Economic analysis alone cannot give us the answer.

24、 The question is a normative one facing policymakers.,收入再分配的政治哲学,政府对经济不平等应该做些什么？ 仅仅是经济分析并不能告诉我们答案。 这个问题是政策制订者面临的规范问题。,Political Philosophy of Redistributing Income 收入再分配的政治哲学,Three Political Philosophies 三个政治哲学 Utilitarianism 功利主义 Liberalism 自由主义 Libertarianism 自由意志主义,Utilitarianism,Utilitarianism i

25、s the view that government should redistribute income to maximize the total utility of everyone in society. The founders of utilitarianism are the English philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.,功利主义,功利主义认为， 政府应该选择使社会上所有人总效用最大化的政策。 功利主义的奠基人是英国哲学家瑞米.边沁和约翰.斯图加特.穆勒。,Utilitarianism,The utilita

26、rian case for redistributing income is based on the assumption of diminishing marginal utility. An extra dollar of income to a poor person provides that person with more utility, or well-being, than does an extra dollar to a rich person.,功利主义,功利主义者支持收入再分配是根据边际效用递减的假设。 一个穷人额外一美元收入给这个穷人所带来的额外效用大于富人额外一

27、美元给这个富人带来的效用或福利。,Liberalism,Liberalism is the view that income should be redistributed in such a way so that the poorest in society always receive an adequate level of income as a form of social insurance. This view was originally developed by the philosopher John Rawls.,自由主义,自由主义认为，收入再分配的形式应该使社会中最穷

28、的人总是能得到适当的收入水平，作为社会保障。 这种观点最早由哲学家约翰.罗尔斯提出。,Liberalism,Public policy should be based on the maximin criterion, which seeks to maximize the utility or well-being of the worst-off person in society. That is, rather than maximizing the sum of everyones utility, one should maximize the minimum utility. T

29、his idea would allow for the consideration of the redistribution of income as a form of social insurance.,自由主义,公共政策的制订应该基于最大化标准，目的是追求社会上最不幸的人的效用或福利最大化。 这就是说，自由主义追求的不是使每个人效用的总和最大化，而是要使最小效用最大化。 这种思想使我们把收入再分配作为社会保险的一种形式。,Libertarianism,Libertarianism is the view that government should enforce individua

30、l rights to ensure that everyone has the same opportunity to use his or her talents to achieve success, but should not redistribute income. Libertarians argue that equality of opportunity is more important than equality of income.,自由意志主义,自由意志主义认为， 政府应该强调个人的权利，以确保每个人有同样使用自己才能并获得成功的机会，但是不应该进行收入再分配。 自由

31、意志主义认为，机会平等比收入平等更重要。,Policies to Reduce Poverty减少贫困的政策,Minimum-wage laws 最低工资法 Welfare 福利 Negative income tax 负所得税 In-kind transfers 实物转移支付,Minimum-Wage Laws 最低工资法,Advocates view the minimum wage as a way of helping the working poor. 支持者把其作为帮助工作的穷人的一种方法 Critics view the minimum wage as hurting those

32、 it is intended to help. 批评者把其看成是对它想帮助的人的一种伤害,Minimum-Wage Laws 最低工资法,The magnitude of the effects of the minimum wage depends on the elasticity of the demand for labor. 最低工资法影响的大小取决于劳动的需求弹性。,Minimum-Wage Laws,Advocates argue that the demand for unskilled labor is relatively inelastic, so that a hig

33、h minimum wage depresses employment only slightly. Critics argue that labor demand is more elastic, especially in the long run when firms can adjust employment more fully.,最低工资法,支持者认为，不熟练劳动的需求是较为缺乏弹性的，因此，高水平最低工资所减少的就业是微不足道的。 批评者认为，劳动需求较为富有弹性，特别是在企业可以更充分地调整就业与生产的长期中更是如此。,Welfare,The government attemp

34、ts to raise the living standards of the poor through the welfare system. Welfare is a broad term that encompasses various government programs that supplement the incomes of the needy. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Supplemental Security Income (SSI),福利,政府试图通过福利制度来提高穷人的生活水平。 福利是包括多种政府计划的一个广义

35、术语，用来补贴需要者的收入。 对需要帮助的家庭暂时性补贴 补贴性保障收入 (SSI),Negative Income Tax 负所得税,A negative income tax collects tax revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income households. 负所得税向高收入家庭收税并给低收入家庭转移支付的税制。,Negative Income Tax,High-income families would pay a tax based on their incomes. Low-in

36、come families would receive a subsidy a “negative tax.” Poor families would receive financial assistance without having to demonstrate need.,负所得税,高收入家庭根据他们的收入纳税。 低收入家庭将得到补贴一种“负税”。 穷人家庭将得到财政帮助，而不必说明其需要帮助。,In-Kind Transfers 实物转移支付,In-kind transfers are transfers to the poor given in the form of goods

37、and services rather than cash. 实物转移支付是向穷人转移支付物品和劳务而不是现金。 Food stamps and Medicaid are examples. 食品券和医疗援助是实物转移支付的例子。,In-Kind Transfers,Advocates of in-kind transfers argue that such transfers ensure that the poor get what they most need. Advocates of cash payments argue that in-kind-transfers are ine

38、fficient and disrespectful.,实物转移支付,支持者认为，这种转移支付确保穷人得到他们最需要的东西。 现金支付的支持者认为，实物转移支付是无效率的和不尊重穷人的。,Antipoverty Programs and Work Incentives反贫穷计划和工作激励,Many policies aimed at helping the poor can have the unintended effect of discouraging the poor from escaping poverty on their own. 许多旨在帮助穷人的政策可能对鼓励穷人依靠自己的

39、力量脱贫有意想不到的不利影响。,Antipoverty Programs and Work Incentives,An antipoverty program can affect work incentives: A family needs $15,000 to maintain a reasonable standard of living. The government promises to guarantee every family a $15,000 income. Any person making under $15,000 has no incentive to work

40、 due to the effective marginal tax rate of 100 percent.,反贫困计划和工作激励,反贫困计划可能影响工作激励： 假设一个家庭维持合理的生活水平需要15,000 美元。 政府承诺每个家庭都有15,000美元的收入。 任何一个工作收入在15,000美元以下的人就没有工作的激励，这是因为实际的边际税率是100。,Antipoverty Programs and Work Incentives反贫穷计划和工作激励,Workfare refers to a system that would require any person collecting benefits to accept a government-provided job. 劳动福利一种要求任何一个得到津贴的人接受一份政府提供的工作的制度。,Antipoverty Programs and Work Incentives反贫穷计划和工作激励,A 1996 welfare reform bill advocated providing benefits for only a limited period of time. 1996年的福利改革提案要求只在有限的时间内提供津贴。,Summ