英语写作PPT展示Refutation.ppt

1、,Refutation,What,How,Example,Refutation is the part of an argument where in a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view.,Informal logic An objection (also called expostulation or refutation), is a reason arguing against premise, lemma, or main contention.,Greco-Romans,Truthd

2、oes not fearcontention. The more thetruthisdebated, the clearer it becomes.,Plato A summary of the argument you are refuting; An acknowledge of the strengths of the argument, if any; The aspects of the argument that you believe are flawed;,How to,Write Introduction,How to,Write Introduction,2. Be ch

3、arming You can win the attention and good will of your readers by telling an interesting story, quoting a good comment on the issue. You should avoid pomposity, and show concern for your readers. You should present yourself as fair-minded and good-natured.,How to write Introduction,How to write Body

4、,How to write Conclusion,How we,write Refutation,What opposing arguments can be attacked,Three types of organization,Four steps in refutation,Language of refutation,How to,Write body,Arguments are the result of reasoning about evidence,Attacks on evidence,Attacks on reasoning,Attacks on claims,Two b

5、road tests of evidence are: Is the evidence correct? Is the evidence adequate to prove the argument?,Attacks On evidence,The next More particular criteria for testing evidence,22,So-called Authorityleans on the popularity of someone who may have little knowledge of the issue or product. Example: CNN

6、s Lou Dobbs, regularly uses a figure of 20 million when discussing the number of illegal aliens on his broadcast Lou Dobbs Tonight.“ However, the PEW Center, a more objective source places the number at 11 million.,Attacks On evidence,23,Flawed statistical data small sample and special sample; the t

7、otal number of samples is unknown; Example: There were 13 gun-related fatalities among children every day, but didnt tell the exact age range.,Attacks On evidence,24,Ignore the change of conditionswithout considering the change of time, space and other external conditions which may lead to the alter

8、ation of evidence. Example: Conventional weapons caused much more damage in world War II than atomic weapons, so conventional weapons are more lethal. However, its under two different circumstances.,Attacks On evidence,25,Suppressed evidencehide some aspects which is against the claim Example: An ad

9、vertisement claims a particular car has more horsepower and 0-60 speed, but fails to mention it also does worse in crash tests, and has worse reliability.,Attacks On evidence,26,Self-contradictory evidence If you say or write something that isself-contradictory, you make two statements which cannot

10、both be true. Example: Bush has blocked prescription drug imports from Canada over safety concerns, but he also said the U.S. could rely on Canada for more flu vaccine.,Attacks On evidence,27,Negative evidencethe evidence is not right or moral in a civilized society, is evil-minded, immature vicious

11、 or harmful, is sexist or discriminatory, or culturally unacceptable. Example: Its not necessary to abolish death penalty in China because the population of China is so large. However, its evil !,Attacks On evidence,28,Atypical evidencethe evidence is not typical to prove the claim Example: An ad fo

12、r a miracle diet offers testimonials as proof, but fails to provide a controlled clinical study to prove the diet really works.,Attacks On evidence,29,Arguments are the result of reasoning about evidence,Attacks on evidence,Attacks on reasoning,Attacks on claims,Hasty generalizations Arriving at a c

13、onclusion without enough evidence. Example: Li Hua and Wang Ping, who are two Asian-American students, do well in math, so all Asian-American students are better in math.,Attacks On reasoning,31,Bandwagon ThinkingClaiming that most people agree so it must be right. Example: Its widely accepted that

14、French people are more romantic, so French must be romantic.,Attacks On reasoning,32,Single cause-effectClaiming that only one event caused another . Example: When I sat down at the computer it stopped working, so I must have done something wrong.,Attacks On reasoning,33,No connection The cause does

15、 not relate to the effect. Example: Lets not take Xiao Jingteng on our picnic. Every time we take him out with us, it rains.,Attacks On reasoning,34,Either/Or Suggesting only two alternatives while the issue may be much more complex. Example: Bush: “either youre for America or youre for the terroris

16、ts”,Attacks On reasoning,35,Circular Reasoning Restating in different words what has already been stated. Example: Xiao ming is a bachelor because he hasnt got married.,Attacks On reasoning,36,False Analogy The argument asserts that if facts relating to A and facts relating to B are alike in some es

17、sential respects, they will be alike in another, or other, essential respects. Example: Students should be allowed to look at their textbooks during examinations. After all, surgeons have X-rays to guide them during an operation, lawyers have briefs to guide them during a trial, carpenters have blue

18、prints to guide them when they are building a house.,Attacks On reasoning,37,1. Sequential attack （argument1-argument2-argument3）,What opposing arguments can be attacked,Three types of organization,Four steps in refutation,Language of refutation,How we,Write body,38,2. Primary and secondary attacks,

19、Three types of organization,How we,Write body,refutation of primary argument refutation of secondary argument,3. Concession type attack,To make the body part coherent and consistent Rebuttal of A is not necessarily to be the first, but its critical to find out the logical connection in the whole ori

20、ginal article to be refuted,40,Video Examples Video 1 Video 2,Three types of organization,41,1. The argument to be refuted and its relationship to the case as a whole.,How we,Write body,Example: In developing a need for price controls, the effect of inflation has been injurious to the welfare of the

21、 American laborer. Now, if this were true, the affirmative would indeed have a strong argument.,What opposing arguments can be attacked,Three types of organization,Four steps in refutation,Language of refutation,42,2. State how you will refute the argument.,Example: However, it can be demonstrated t

22、hat the affirmative has reached an erroneous conclusion by neglecting the most relevant aspects of the United States economic picture.,43,3. Refutation with supporting evidence.,Example: Has the United States laborer been hurt by inflation? On the contrary, according to the Secretary of the Treasury

23、, his buying power has gone up forty per cent in the past twenty years, and according to a study conducted by the labor organizations themselves (AFL-CIO report),“The laborer, even though prices have gone up, still is in a position to buy more of the desired goods on the market than ever before.”,44

24、,4. The effect of the refutation and transition to continued refutation.,Example: Thus we see that the affirmative need argument, an appeal to the welfare of labor, is refuted by the labor leaders themselves. Now, let us proceed to their other need arguments to see if they are real or largely imagin

25、ary.,45,Make the means of communication - language - as clear as possible. Avoid vague terms Use the vocabulary of debate by referring to issues, arguments, and evidence.,How we,Write body,What opposing arguments can be attacked,Three types of organization,Four steps in refutation,Language of refuta

26、tion,46,【Avoid 】The point has been brought up. 【Because】 Vague. Calling everything a point, whether it is an issue, and argument, or evidence, is probably the most common language error in debate. By itself it is vague; when it is overused it leads to total confusion. 【Use instead】 “The contention o

27、f workability has been attacked with the argument that”,【Avoid】 “As our quotes have proved” 【Because】 Vague. Be concrete by making specific references. 【Use instead】 “On the other hand, both Professor X, of White University, and the Director of the National Science Foundation have proved”,【Avoid】 “T

28、hey said” or “We said” 【Because】 Vague and clumsy. 【Use instead】 “The first affirmative speaker asserted” or “Miss Smith, in her first constructive speech”,【Avoid】 “We stand on” 【Because】 Clumsy. 【Use instead】 “Our support of this contention has been”,【Avoid】 “Where is their proof?” and “We have off

29、ered proof.” 【Because】 Clumsy and erroneous. Proof is often confused with evidence. 【Use instead】 “Where is the supporting evidence to prove” and “We have offered evidence to support”,Bonus !,Typical language used in refutation,Although it is commonly held that success will bring people money and st

30、atus, it is unlikely to be true that it will be a desirable goal for anyone. Considering the great stress they have to live with, and their shorter life spans, greater loneliness, and relative incapacity for community or love it entails, it is conceivable that not everyone finds an enterprise requir

31、ing such sacrifice is worth what it costs. 虽然大多数人认为成功能给人带来金钱和地位，但是每个人都渴望成功却不一定是事实。想一想为了成功所要承受的紧张压力，寿命的可能缩短，巨大的孤独，不能有常人的感情交流和爱情。可以想象，不是所有的人都认为为追求一个目标付出这么多的牺牲是值得的,It is probably true that instituting sanctions may significantly reduce the frequency of wrong speeches on campus, but one vital point is b

32、eing left out of our thinking: these measures pose a serious threat to the very idea of the university and the spirit of academic freedom. 采取制裁措施可能会显著地减少校园的“错误”言论，但是有一点我们没有考虑进去：这些措施对大学的本身宗旨以及学术自由精神构成了威胁。,Typical language used in refutation,On the surface, the comments made by men about womens abilit

33、ies seem reasonable. But on close examination, the comments reveal the real contempt that men feel for women and the basic hostility that men have toward women. 表面上，男人对妇女的能力所作的评论似乎有点道理，但仔细检查一下，这个评论反映了男人对妇女的真正蔑视和对妇女的态度基本上是对立的。,Typical language used in refutation,Some people suggest that a manager or

34、a high executive can speak well and logically because of the opportunities of his position. That is putting the cart before the horse. More often than not, quite the reverse is true. It is his skill in words that helps him to get his job. That is, if you consciously increase your vocabulary you will

35、 unconsciously raise yourself to a more important station in life. Of course, the new and higher position you have won will, in turn, give you a better opportunity for further enriching your language. It is a beautiful and successful cycle. 有的人说一个经理或一个高级管理人员之所以口才好，讲话有逻辑是因为他的职位给他创造了这样的条件。这就有点本末倒置了。许多

36、情况下，事实正好相反。他的词语能力正好帮助他获得了他的这个职位。也就是说如果你注意扩大你的词汇，你就会在无意中提高生活中的地位。当然你得到的一个新的更重要的职位会反过来为你进一步丰富你的语言创造好的条件。这是一个良性的成功的循环。,Typical language used in refutation,How to write Introduction,How to write Body,How to write Conclusion,How we,write Refutation,How to,write conclusion,4. Statistical findings: data sh

37、owing how much, how many, or how oftencan be convincing. 5. Personal experiences or observations: Sometimes they can deliver an argumentative message more forcefully than any other kind of evidence. Personal experience usually reinforces but does not replace other kinds of evidences.,How to end Rest

38、art your thesis in different ways Look into the future Make fun of your opponents Summarize your major points if your paper is long,How to write conclusion Restate your thesis in different ways Look into the future Make fun of your opponents Summarize your major points if your paper is long,Tips for

39、 Your Essay,Dont make up evidence Cite your sources Make an outline,Avoid emotional language Know the difference between a logical conclusion and an emotional point of view,What,How,Example,Too much,Concepts!,I strike!,P,P,T,61,A sample essay,so,The next one is,Natureexamines whether and how an athl

40、etes performance history and the limits of human physiology could be used to catch dopers.,sample essay,Yes performance was anomalous(异常) with an improvement about 7 seconds(6.72s). A clean drug test during competition could not rule out the possibility of doping(兴奋剂). Performance could be used to n

41、ab dopers. An athlete will be disciplined simply for performing too well.,OUTLINE OF REFUTATION,Introduction Body 1. Refute: the data of “7 seconds” 2. Refute: “anomalous” improvement 3. Refute: compare Ryan Lochtes last 50 metres to Yes 4. Refute: another example of cherry-picking 5. Refute: a drug

42、 test cannot rule out the possibility of doping 6. Refute: Callaway failed to mention out-of-competition drug test Conclusion,Introduction partFROM LAI JIANG, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania,It is a shame to seeNature which nearly all scientists, including myself, regard as one o

43、f the most prestigious and influential physical-science magazines publish a thinly veiled biased article like this. Granted, this is not a peer-reviewed scientific article and did not go through the scrutiny of picking referees. But to serve as a channel for the general populace to be in touch with

44、and appreciate science, the authors and editors should at least present the readers with facts within the proper context, which they blatantly failed to do.,Background/Hook,Body part,First, to identify Yes performance increase, Ewen Callaway compared her Olympic 400-metre IM time with her performanc

45、e at the World Championships in 2011 (4:28.43 and 4:35.15, respectively) and concluded that she had an “anomalous” improvement of around 7 seconds (6.72 s). In fact, her previous personal best was 4:33.79 at theAsian Games in 2010 . This leads to an improvement of 5.38 seconds. In a sporting event i

46、n which 0.1 s can be the difference between the gold and silver medal, I see no reason for 5.38 s to be treated as 7 s.,Review the wrong facts,List facts,Your argument,Effect of your refutation on opponents case,p1,Body part,Second, as previously pointed out, Ye is only 16 years old and her body is

47、still developing. Bettering oneself by 5 seconds over two years may seem impossible for an adult swimmer, but it certainly happens among youngsters. An interview with Australian gold medallist Ian Thorpe revealed that his 400-metre freestyle time improved by 5 seconds between the ages of 15 and 16.

48、For regular people, including Callaway, it may be hard to imagine what an elite swimmer can achieve as he or she matures and undergoes scientific and persistent training. But jumping to the conclusion that it is “anomalous” based on Oh thats so tough I cannot imagine it is real is hardly sound.,List

49、 facts,Your argument,Effect of your refutation on opponents case,p2,Body part,Third, to compare Ryan Lochtes last 50 metres to Yes is a textbook example of cherry-picking your data. Yes, Lochte was slower than Ye in the last 50 metres, but Lochte had a huge lead in the first 300 metres, so he chose

50、not to push himself too hard and to conserve his energy for later. Ye, on the other hand, was trailing behind after the first 300 metres and relied on freestyle, in which she has an edge, to win the race. Failing to mention this strategic difference, as well as the fact that Lochte is 23.25 seconds

51、faster (4:05.18) than Ye overall, creates the illusion that a woman swam faster than the best man in the same sport, which sounds impossible. Putting aside the gender argument, I believe this is still a leading question that implies to the reader that there is something fishy going on.,cherry-pickin

52、g,List facts,Your argument,Effect of your refutation on opponents case,p3,Body part,Fourth is another example of cherry-picking. In the same event, there are four male swimmers who swam faster than both Lochter (29.10 s) and Ye (28.93 s) in the final 50 metres: Kosuke Hagino (28.52 s), Michael Phelp

53、s (28.44 s), Yuya Horihata (27.87 s) and Thomas Fraser-Holmes (28.35 s). As it turns out, if we are just talking about the last 50 metres in a 400-metre IM, Lochter is not the example I would have used if I were the author. What kind of scientific rigorousness is Callaway trying to demonstrate here?

54、 Is it logical that if Lochter is the champion, we should assume that he leads in every split? That would be a terrible way to teach the public how science works.,cherry-picking,List facts,Your argument,Effect of your refutation on opponents case,p4,Body part,Fifth is the issue I oppose the most. Ca

55、llaway quotes Ross Tucker and implies that a drug test cannot rule out the possibility of doping. Anyone who has taken quantum 101 will tell you that everything is probabilistic in nature, and so there is a probability that the drug in an athletes system could tunnel out right at the moment of the test. A slight chance it may be, but should we disregard all test results because of it? Lets be practical and reasonable,