国外组织行为学课件 皮尔森 ch07

Chapter 7 / Slide 1 Chapter 7 Groups and Teamwork 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 2 Learning Objectives Define groups and distinguish between formal and informal groups. Discuss group development. Explain how group size and member diversity influence what occurs in groups. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 3 Learning Objectives (continued) Review how norms, roles, and status affect social interaction. Discuss the causes and consequences of group cohesiveness. Explain the dynamics of social loafing. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 4 Learning Objectives (continued) Discuss how to design and support self- managed teams. Explain the logic behind cross-functional teams and describe how they can operate effectively. Understand virtual teams and what makes them effective. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 5 What Is a Group? A group consists of two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal. Interaction is the most basic aspect of a group. Interdependence means that group members rely to some degree on each other to accomplish goals. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 6 What Is a Group? (continued) Why is group membership important? Groups exert influence on us. Groups provide a context in which we are able to exert influence on others. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 7 Formal Work Groups Formal work groups are groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals. The most common formal group consists of a manager and the employees who report to the manager. Other types of formal work groups: Task forces Committees 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 8 Informal Groups Informal groups are groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members. They are seldom sanctioned by the organization. Informal groups can either help or hurt an organization, depending on their norms for behaviour. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 9 Group Development Groups are complex social devices. They require a fair amount of negotiation and trial-and-error before individual members begin to function as a true group. How do groups develop? 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 10 Typical Stages of Group Development Groups develop through a series of stages over time. Each stage presents the members with a series of challenges they must master to achieve the next stage. The stages model is a good tool for monitoring and troubleshooting how groups are developing. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 11 Typical Stages of Group Development (continued) Not all groups go through these stages. The process applies mainly to new groups that have never met before. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 12 Stages of Group Development 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 13 Forming Group members try to orient themselves by “testing the waters.” The situation is often ambiguous, and members are aware of their dependency on each other. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 14 Storming Conflict often emerges at this stage. Confrontation and criticism occur as members determine whether they will go along with the way the group is developing. Sorting out roles and responsibilities is often at issue. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 15 Norming Members resolve the issues that provoked the storming, and they develop social consensus. Compromise is often necessary. Norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive. Information and opinions flow freely. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 16 Performing The group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment. Achievement, creativity, and mutual assistance are prominent themes at this stage. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 17 Adjourning Rites and rituals that affirm the groups previous successful development are common. Members often exhibit emotional support for each other. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 18 Punctuated Equilibrium Model A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions. Equilibrium means stability. Stretches of group stability punctuated by a critical first meeting, a midpoint change in group activity, and a rush to task completion. Does the sequence sound familiar to you? 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 19 Phase 1 Begins with the first meeting and continues until the midpoint in the groups existence. The first meeting is critical in setting the agenda for what will happen in the remainder of the phase. The group makes little visible progress toward the goal. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 20 Midpoint Transition Occurs at almost exactly the halfway point in time toward the groups deadline. The transition marks a change in the groups approach. How the group manages it is critical for the group to show progress. This transition crystallizes the groups activities for Phase 2. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 21 Phase 2 Decisions and approaches adopted at the midpoint get played out in Phase 2. It concludes with a final meeting that reveals a burst of activity and a concern for how outsiders will evaluate the product. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 22 The Punctuated Equilibrium Model of Group Development for Two Groups 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 23 Punctuated Equilibrium Model (continued) Advice for managing teams: Prepare carefully for the first meeting. As long as people are working, do not look for radical progress during Phase 1. Manage the midpoint transition carefully. Be sure that adequate resources are available to actually execute the Phase 2 plan. Resist deadline changes. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 24 Group Structure and Its Consequences Group structure refers to the characteristics of the stable social organization of a group - the way a group is “put together.” The most basic structural characteristics along which groups vary are size and member diversity. Other structural characteristics are group norms, roles, status, and cohesiveness. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 25 Group Size The smallest possible group consists of two people, such as a manager and a particular employee. In practice, most work groups, including task forces and committees, usually have between 3 and 20 members. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 26 Group Size and Satisfaction Members of larger groups consistently report less satisfaction with group membership than those in smaller groups. Chance to work on and develop friendships decrease as size increases. Larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 27 Group Size and Satisfaction (continued) Many people are inhibited about participating in larger groups. In large groups, individual members identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 28 Group Size and Performance Do large groups perform tasks better than small groups? The relationship between group size and performance depends on the task the group needs to accomplish and on how we define good performance. Types of tasks: Additive tasks Disjunctive tasks Conjunctive tasks 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 29 Additive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members. For additive tasks, the potential performance of the group increases with group size. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 30 Disjunctive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the performance of the best group member. The potential performance of groups doing disjunctive tasks increases with group size. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 31 Process Losses Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups. As groups performing tasks get bigger, they tend to suffer from process losses. Problems of communication and decision making increase with size. Actual performance = Potential performance Process losses 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 32 Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 33 Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 34 Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 35 Process Losses (continued) Potential performance and process losses increase with group size for additive and disjunctive tasks. Actual performance increases with size up to a point and then falls off. The average performance of group members decreases as size gets bigger. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 36 Process Losses (continued) Thus, up to a point, larger groups might perform better as groups, but their individual members tend to be less efficient. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 37 Conjunctive Tasks Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member. Both the potential and actual performance of conjunctive tasks would decrease as group size increases. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 38 Group Size and Performance: Summary For additive and disjunctive tasks, larger groups might perform better up to a point but at increasing costs to the efficiency of individual members. Performance on purely conjunctive tasks should decrease as group size increases. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 39 Diversity of Group Membership Diverse groups have a more difficult time communicating effectively and becoming cohesive. Diverse groups might take longer to do their forming, storming, and norming. Once they do develop, more and less diverse groups are equally cohesive and productive. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 40 Diversity of Group Membership (continued) Diverse groups sometimes perform better when the task requires cognitive, creativity- demanding tasks, and problem-solving. In general, any negative effects of “surface diversity” in age, gender, or race seem to wear off over time. “Deep diversity” in attitudes toward work or how to accomplish a goal can badly damage cohesiveness. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 41 Group Norms Social norms are collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. They are codes of conduct that specify the standards against which we evaluate the appropriateness of behaviour. Most normative influence is unconscious; we are only aware of it in special circumstances. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 42 Norm Development Why do norms develop? Norms provide regularity and predictability to behaviour. What do norms develop about? Norms develop about behaviours that are at least marginally important to their supporters. How do norms develop? Shared attitudes among members of a group form the basis for norms. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 43 Norm Development (continued) Why do individuals comply with norms? The norm corresponds to privately held attitudes. They often save time and prevent social confusion. Groups have a range of rewards and punishments available to induce conformity to norms. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 44 Some Typical Norms Some types of norms that exist in most organizations and affect the behaviour of members include: Dress norms Reward allocation norms (equity, equality, reciprocity, social responsibility) Performance norms 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 45 Roles Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them. Roles represent “packages” of norms that apply to particular group members. There are two basic kinds of roles in organizations: Assigned roles Emergent roles 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 46 Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity exists when the goals of ones job or the methods of performing it are unclear. There are a variety of elements that can lead to role ambiguity: Organizational factors The role sender The focal person 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 47 A Model of the Role Assumption Process 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 48 Role Ambiguity (continued) What are the practical consequences of role ambiguity? The most frequent outcomes are job stress, dissatisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, lower performance, and intentions to quit. Managers can reduce role ambiguity by providing clear performance expectations and performance feedback. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 49 Role Conflict Role conflict exists when an individual is faced with incompatible role expectations. There are four types of role conflict: Intrasender role conflict Intersender role conflict Interrole conflict Person-role conflict 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 50 Intrasender Role Conflict A single role sender provides incompatible role expectations to a role occupant. This type of role conflict is especially likely to also provoke ambiguity. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 51 Intersender Role Conflict Two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations. Employees who straddle the boundary between the organization and its clients or customers are especially likely to encounter this form of conflict. It can also stem from within the organization. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 52 Interrole Conflict Several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations. Competing demands for ones time are a frequent symptom of interrole conflict. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 53 Person-Role Conflict Role demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant. Many examples of “whistle-blowing” are signals of person-role conflict. The organization has demanded some role behaviour that the occupant considers unethical. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 54 Role Conflict: Consequences The most consistent consequences of role conflict are job dissatisfaction, stress reactions, lowered organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 55 Role Conflict (continued) Managers can help prevent employee role conflict by: Avoiding self-contradictory messages Conferring with other role senders Being sensitive to multiple role demands Fitting the right person to the right role 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 56 Status Status in the rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members. It represents the groups evaluation of a member. What is evaluated depends on the status system in question. All organizations have both formal and informal status systems. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 57 Formal Status Systems Represents managements attempt to publicly identify those people who have higher status than others. Status symbols are tangible indicators of status (e.g., titles, pay packages, work schedules). Formal organization status is based on seniority in ones group and ones assigned role in the organization ones job. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 58 Formal Status Systems (continued) Why do organizations go to all the trouble to differentiate status? They serve as powerful magnets to induce members to aspire to higher organizational positions. Reinforces the authority hierarchy in work groups and in the organization as a whole. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 59 Informal Status Systems Such systems are not well advertised, and they might lack the conspicuous symbols and systematic support that people usually accord the formal system. They can operate just as effectively as formal status systems. Informal status is linked to job performance as well as other factors such as gender or race. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 60 Consequences of Status Differences Most people like to communicate with others at their own status or higher, rather than with people who are below them. Tendency for communication to move up the status hierarchy. If status differences are large, people can be inhibited from communicating upward. Higher-status members do more talking and have more influence. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 61 Reducing Status Barriers Because they inhibit the free flow of communication, many organizations downplay status differentiation by doing away with status symbols. The goal is to foster a culture of teamwork and cooperation across the ranks. Email seems to have leveled status barriers. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 62 Group Cohesiveness Group cohesiveness is a critical property of groups. It refers to the degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members. Members want to stay in the group and they describe the group in favourable terms. Cohesiveness is a relative, rather than absolute, property of groups. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 63 Factors Influencing Cohesiveness What makes some groups more cohesive than others? Threat and Competition External threat to the survival of the group increases cohesiveness. Honest competition with another group can also promote cohesiveness. The group becomes more cohesive because it improves communication and coordination. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 7 / Slide 64 Factors Influencing Cohesi