期望效应在小学教育教学中的应用

小学是义务教育的初始阶段，更是习惯养成的关键时期，良好的小学教育是一个人成 功发展的基石。根据心理学家埃里克森的人格发展理论，处于学龄期（6-12 岁）的儿童主 要发展冲突为“勤奋对自卑” ，这一阶段儿童都应在学校接受教育，学校是训练儿童适应社 会，掌握今后生活必需知识和技能的地方，这个阶段的儿童十分在乎周围人对他们的评价， 在别人评价中形成对自我的认识。 大多数儿童进入小学时，都认为自己没什么做不了的，但不久，他们就会发现自己可 能并没有想象中那么优秀，因此，为了受到大家的欢迎，引起老师的关注，他们会努力展 现自己最棒的一面，如果成功，他们的能力感就会增强，使他们以自己的方式成为积极的、 有成就的社会成员。失败的体验则会使儿童产生无能感，导致对创造性与幸福感的不良预 期。这个时期，儿童要么形成勤奋感和对自己力量和能力的信心，要么形成自卑感和对自 己天分与技能的低评价1。因此，这个阶段儿童对外界的积极评价是十分渴求的，环境的 积极期望将有助于儿童形成勤奋感，进而形成健康人格。 一、什么是期望效应 期望效应也叫皮格马利翁效应，源于一个古老的希腊神话。皮格马利翁是希腊神话的 塞浦路斯国王，善雕刻，不喜欢凡间女子，于是将全部精力、热情、与爱恋赋予一座自己 雕塑的象牙少女像。最终，他的执着打动了爱神阿芙洛狄忒，于是赐予雕像生命，并让他 们结为夫妻。 “皮格马利翁效应”成为一个人只要对艺术对象有执着追求精神，便会发生艺 术感应的代名词，后来被用于教育心理学中。 1968 年，美国心理学家罗森塔尔做了一个关于“在课堂中的皮格马利翁效应”的实验。 实验研究了教师的期望与学生智力发展间的关系，试验先对 1 至 6 年级的学生进行了一次 所谓预知未来发展的智力测验（实则不然） ，而后在各班随机，抽取了一部分学生作为实验 组，称这些孩子具有很大的发展潜力。其余学生则作为控制组。8 个月后，又对全体学生 进行了一次同样的测试。结果发现实验组学生（特别是低年级学生）智力提高得更快2。 试验中，教师因受到实验者的暗示，对实验组学生抱有更高期望，并以实际行动传达给这 些学生，学生接收到教师的期望后给予教师积极反馈，维持或发展教师原有期望，教师进 而会给予这些学生更多关注，如此反复，使期望效应变为现实，这样的期望效应称为正期 望效应3。实际生活中负期望效应随处可见，主要有两种表现方式：一种是教师、家庭、 同伴群体的消极评价、否定、嫌弃等都将导致学生智力衰退、精神不振等心理问题，一种 是过高的期望使学生因达不到期望值而造成较重的心理压力，对自己进行消极评价。近年 来，期望的负效应越来越多地受到人们的关注。由此可见，合理运用期望效应在小学教育 教学中是十分重要的。 二、如何有效运用期望效应 由于期望效应包含正期望效应与负期望效应两类，负期望效应会对学生造成不良影响， 因此有效运用期望效应变得尤为重要。 （一）真正了解学生 想要合理运用期望效应，最基础也是最重要的一点就是了解学生。只有深入了解学生 才知道其目前处于怎样的发展阶段，他的需求是什么，有怎样的价值观念，在此基础上才 能合理、有效地对其提出期望，不能过高，也不能过低，最合适的才是最好的。 1.了解学生的最近发展区 最近发展区理论是由前苏联教育家维果茨基提出的儿童教育发展观。他认为学生的发 展有两种水平：一种是学生的现有水平，指独立活动时能达到的解决问题水平；另一种是 学生可能的发展水平，也就是通过教学获得的潜力。两者之间的差异就是最近发展区。这 提示教育工作者在教学中应着眼于学生的最近发展区，为学生提供带有难度的内容，调动 学生积极性，发挥其潜能，超越其最近发展区而达到下一发展阶段水平，然后在此基础上 进行下一个发展区的发展。 期望效应有效运用的前提就是尊重学生的现有发展，顺应其发展过程，教师对学生提 出的期望应基于学生的最近发展区，期望应具有一定的高度，能充分调动学生的积极性， 发挥其潜能，同时保证学生通过努力实现，只有这样才能最大限度发挥期望的效果。 2.合理运用多元智力理论 多元智力理论由美国心理学家加德纳提出。通过对脑损伤病人的研究及对智力特殊群 体的分析，提出人类的神经系统经过 100 多万年的演变，已经形成了互不相干的多种智力。 加德纳认为，智力的内涵是多元的，它由 8 种相对独立的智力成分构成。每一种智力依据 某一社会对它的需要、奖赏及对社会的作用，其价值不同。八种智力分别为言语智力、逻 辑-数学智力、空间智力、音乐智力、运动智力、人际智力、自知智力、自然智力4 。这或 许就是为什么“术业有专攻”的另一种解释。 实际教育教学中，很容易看到这样的现象：有些同学在言语智力方面有着优秀的表现， 出口成章、妙笔生花，然而在数理逻辑方面却怎么也不开窍，这就是我们常说的文科生与 理科生的区别，同时是多元智力理论的体现。在这样的情况下，如果要求那些在逻辑-数学 智力方面有局限的同学要像擅长此领域的学生一样考取高分就显得不切实际，只有结合自 身情况给予适当期望值，才有可能产生积极影响。 由此可见，教育教学中我们应该多关注学生，根据加德纳的多元智力理论理性地分析 其优势与不足，进而提出合理有效的期望。 （二）学校、家庭、同伴群体发挥合力 以往研究表明，外界环境的期望在很大程度上影响着一个人对自我的认识，从而进一 步影响人格形成。处于小学阶段的儿童面临的人格发展矛盾为“勤奋对自卑” ，两种截然相 反的人格的形成有赖于环境评价。 对于处于小学阶段的学生而言，他们接触到的环境 主要由学校、家庭及同伴群体三个因素组成。家庭是儿童的第一所学校，父母是儿童的第 一任老师，在这里，他们学到了最初的与人交往方式，培养了一定的行为习惯，同时根据 家人的期望、评价对自己有了一定的认识。学校是儿童积累知识与经验，进一步社会化的 场所，这里，他们开始接触集体生活，学习如何与老师、同学相处，培养良好学习、行为 习惯，通过老师及同学的评价与期望进一步了解自己。同伴群体是由一些年龄、兴趣、爱 好等方面较为接近的人组成的非正式初级群体。对小学生而言，同伴群体主要就是周围玩 伴、同学，他们的期望与评价对儿童形成自我认知十分重要。 可见，学校、家庭、同伴群体的期望对小学生成长及健康人格形成起着关键作用。三 者缺一不可，只有形成合力，才能最大限度地发挥期望作用。 三、期望效应带给小学教师的启示 根据以往研究不难看出，期望效应无论在小学生的智力发展、学业成绩方面，还是在 健康人格形成方面都起着至关重要的作用，同时，对广大一线小学教师带来以下几点启示： （一） “相信”的力量是伟大的 有人说：“每个孩子都是种子，只不过每个人的花期不同。有的花，一开始就灿烂绽 放；有的花，需要漫长等待。不要看着别人怒放了，自己那棵还没有动静就着急，相信是 花都有自己的花期，细心呵护自己的花，慢慢看着长大，陪着他沐浴阳光风雨，何尝不是 一种幸福。相信孩子，静等花开。也许你的种子永远不会开花，因为他是一棵参天大树。 ” 教育教学过程中，作为孩子步入校园后学习生涯中的第一任教师，我们要学会“相信” ，相 信每个孩子都有独特之处，都有隐藏潜能，都能有所成长，我们相信了，他们就会相信， 就会有所行动，就会有所成长。 （二）不吝惜你的赞美 太多实例告诉我们，老师一个赞赏的眼神、一个鼓励的动作、一句赞美的语言，都有 可能对学生成长起到深远影响，他们在你的赞美中看到了自己的闪光之处，为了不负你的 期望，定会将得到你赞美的行为延续下去，不断完善自己，以期得到你的肯定。 （三）发自内心地爱每一个学生 孩子天生对爱有着强烈的感知能力，一定知道你到底爱不爱他，因为你的爱会透过语 言、动作、神态等一切他们可以感知到的方式展现出来，你的爱会点燃他们心中的热情， 开发他们的潜能，调动他们的积极性，成为他们不断完善的动力。发自内心地爱每一个学 生，他们一定会有所察觉、有所改变。 Primary school is the initial stage of compulsory education, but also a critical period of habit, good primary school education is the foundation of one success. According to psychologist sven goran erikssons theory of personality development, in school-aged children (6 to 12 years old) main development conflict is “hard to inferiority“, this stage children should accept education in school, the school is to train children to adapt to the society, grasp the necessary knowledge and skills in the future life, children at this stage is very care about the people around their evaluation, the understanding of the formation of self in the others evaluation. Most children enter elementary school, think they do nothing, but soon, they will find themselves may not imagination of so good, so, in order to get the welcome of people, cause the attention of the teacher, they will try to show your best, if successful, their ability to sense will strengthen, make them in their own way to become a positive, productive members of society. The experience of failure can make children have impotence, lead to bad expectation of creative and happiness. This period, children or to form hard feeling and confidence in their own strength and ability, either form inferiority complex and low evaluation of his own talents and skills of 1. Therefore, this stage of childrens positive comments on the outside is very thirst, environment of positive expectations will help children to form hard feeling, and then form a healthy personality. A, what is the expectation effect Expectation effect is also called the Pygmalion effect, is the result of an ancient Greek myth. Pygmalion is a Greek myth of the king of Cyprus, carving, dont like down-to-earth lady, then gives all his energy, enthusiasm, and love to a sculpture of ivory girl like yourself. In the end, his persistent moved los di te, o love of god and given to the statue, and let them get married. “Pygmalion effect“ to become a man as long as there is persistent pursuit for art objects, will happen synonymous with induction of art, was later used in education psychology. In 1968, American psychologist Rosenthal made a about “Pygmalion effect“ in the classroom. Experiment to study the relationship between the expectations of teachers and students intelligence development and test for the students of grade 1 to 6 first conducted a so-called to predict the future development of intelligence test (outcomes), and then randomly in each class, draw the part of students as experimental group, says these children have great development potential. The rest of the students as control group. Eight months later, again to all the students conducted a similar test. Results from the study found that the students (especially junior student) intelligence to improve faster 2. Test, the teacher suggested by the experimenters, in the experimental group students have higher expectations, and take concrete actions to convey to the students, students receive the teachers expectation after giving positive feedback, maintain or develop teachers expectation, original teachers, in turn, these students will be given more attention, so repeatedly, to make the expectation effect, the expectation effect called positive expectation effect 3. Negative expectation effect can be seen everywhere in real life, there are two main ways: one is a teacher, the family and peer group of negative evaluation, negation, abandon, etc. Students will lead to mental decline, depressed and other psychological problems, one is high expectations so that the students due to short of expectations heavy psychological pressure, negative evaluation to myself. In recent years, the negative effects of expect more and more attention. Thus, reasonably applying expectation effect in the teaching of primary school education is very important. Second, how to effectively use expectation effect Because of the expectation effect contains two types of positive expectation effect and negative expectation effect, negative expectation effect will have negative effect on the students, thus effectively using the expectation effect is particularly important. (a) really understand the students Want to reasonable use of expectation effect, the most fundamental and most important is to know the students. Only understanding students didnt know what it is at a stage of development, what he needs, what is the value idea, on the basis of this to reasonably and effectively is put forward to its expectations, not too high, also cannot too low, the most suitable is the best. 1. Understand the recent developments of students The theory of the zone of proximal development is put forward by the former Soviet union educator viggo, childrens education development. He thinks that the development of the students has two levels: one is the students existing level, refers to the activities can reach the level of problem solving independently; Another kind is the development level of students may also is through teaching the potential gain. The difference between the two is a recent development area. This prompt education workers should focus on students in teaching, the zone of proximal development to provide students with the content of the difficulty, arouse the enthusiasm of students, and exert its potential, beyond its recent developments and to reach the next stage of development level, and then on the basis of the development for the next development. Expectation effect and effective use of existing development of students is the premise of respect and adapt to the development process, the teacher expectations of students, the zone of proximal development should be based on students expect should have a certain height, can fully mobilize the enthusiasm of students, exert its potential, at the same time ensure that students through the efforts to achieve, only in this way can the maximum play to the desired effect. 2. The reasonable by using the theory of multiple intelligences Multiple intelligence theory put forward by American psychologist Gardner. Through the study of brain injury patients, and the analysis of the special group of intelligence, puts forward the human nervous system through the evolution of more than 100 in ten thousand, has already formed the unrelated to multiple intelligence. The connotation of Gardner believes that intelligence is diverse, it consists of eight relatively independent intelligence component. Each kind of intelligence on the basis of a societys need for it, reward and the social role, its value is different. Eight kinds of intelligence are verbal intelligence, logical - mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, music intelligence, sports intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, self- knowledge intelligence and natural intelligence 4. “This is probably why there are specializing in“ another explanation. Actual education teaching, it is easy to see such a phenomenon: some students has excellent performance in verbal intelligence, speaks eloquently and flair, in terms of mathematical logic, however, how to also dont begin to understand, this is we often say that the difference between arts and science, and is the embodiment of the theory of multiple intelligence. In such cases, if asked the limitations in the logical - mathematical intelligence classmates like specialize in the field of students earning high marks is impractical, only combined with oneself circumstance to give appropriate expectations, is likely to have a positive impact. Thus, we should pay more attention to students in education teaching, based on Gardners theory of multiple intelligence rationally analyze its advantages and disadvantages, and then put forward the reasonable and effective. (2) the school, family and peer group play together Previous studies have shown that the expectations of the external environment to a great extent, affects a person understanding of self, thus further influence the formation of personality. At the primary stage of children face the personality development of contradiction as the “hard to inferiority“, the formation of the two opposite personality depends on environmental assessment. In the primary school students, for their part, are in contact with the environment is mainly composed of school, family and peer group of three factors. Family is the childs first school, parents are the first teachers of children, in here, with people they learned in the first place, cultivating a certain behavior, at the same time according to the familys expectations, evaluation, have a certain understanding about themselves. School is a childrens knowledge and experience, further social place, here, they begin to contact the collective life, learn how to get along with teachers and classmates, good learning, behavior, through the evaluation and expectations of teachers and classmates learn more about yourself. Peer group is made up of some age, interests, hobbies, etc, is more close to the informal primary groups of people. For primary school students, peer group is mainly around the playmate, classmates, their expectations and evaluation form self is very important for children. Visible, school, family and peer group hopes to elementary school students grow and healthy personality formation plays a key role. Indispensable, only mix, can maximize expected effect. Third, the expectation effect to primary school teachers Based on previous study it is not hard to see, the expectation effect in terms of elementary students intellectual development, academic performance, or in terms of healthy personality formation plays an important role, at the same time, for a line of elementary school teachers to bring the following enlightenment: (a) the power of “believe“ is great Someone said: “every child is a seed, but the flowering of everybody is diff