Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学(现代语言学).doc

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1. Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。 Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。2. Morpheme 词素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位 Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. 正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。 Monomorphemic words 单词素单词2.2 Types of morphemes 词素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table, room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。2.2.2 Bound morphemes 黏着词素Bound morphemes cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.黏着词素是不能够独立使用，而只能与其他词素结合起来才能构成能独立使用的单词。Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.黏着词素包括两类：词根 和 词缀 。Roots 词根A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根经常被看成是单词的一部分，尽管它具有比较清晰、确切的意思，却不能够独立存在，它必须和其他词根或词缀一起才能构成一个单词。For example, the root “geo-”“the earth” the root “-ology”“a branch of learning” “geo-”+“-ology”geology “the study of the earths structure.” the root “tele-”“distant, far” the free morpheme“vision”“seeing, sight” “tele-”+“vision”televisionRoots: “aqu”“water” : aquarium , aquatic“-loqu-”“speech” : eloquent , loquacious , soliloquy“manu-”“hand” : manuscript , manual , manufacture“-path”“emotion” : sympathy , empathyAffixes：词缀 Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. 词缀有两种：屈折词缀 和 派生词缀。Inflectional affixes: 屈折词缀 Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes indicate the grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. 屈折词缀（也叫屈折词素）表现的是如数、时态、级、格这样的语法关系或语法范畴。 Derivational affixes: 派生词缀 Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. 派生词缀是为了构成新的单词而附加在已有单词上面的词缀。 This is a very common way to create new words in English. 这是英语中最常见的创造新词的方法。 Derivation 派生法 derivative 派生词 Stem 词干A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. 被附加上派生词缀的那个业已存在的单词叫词干。A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 词干可以是一个黏着性词根，一个自由词素，也可能本身就是一个派生形式。Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. 词缀分为：前缀 和 后缀。 Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致改变原来单词的词类。Exceptions: “be-”, and “en(m)-”.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs, e.g. little-belittle.例外：“be-”, and “en(m)-”，当它们被附加在形容词或名词上面的时候，会把相关的词改变成动词词类。 Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 后缀也修改原有单词的词义，而且在很多情况下会使原有单词的词类发生变化。2.2.3 Morphological rules 形态学规则Morphological rules are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.形态学规则决定着一些词缀究竟应该和哪一类词根相结合。3. Compounding 复合法Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English.同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和极其重要的一种构词法。In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.从形态学的角度来分析，派生法是把词缀附加到词根上以构成新的单词，而复合法则是把两个、甚至经常是两个以上的单词组合在一起构成新单词的方法。3.1 Types of compound words 复合词的类型3.2 Features of compounds 复合词的特征1. Orthographically 从正字法上来看e.g. armchair, follow-up, thunder bird how a compound is written is simply a matter of convention.关于复合词的写法纯粹是习惯上的问题，在这种情况上，习惯总是要一如既往地得以尊重。2. Syntactically 从句法上来讲The part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element, e.g., icy-cold adj. head-strong adj. greenhouse n.复合词的词类一般都是由单词中第二个成分所决定的。Exceptions: especially with those compounds ending with a verb or an adverb or a preposition. For example, follow-up, crackdown, kick-off are all nouns instead of adverbs, and toothpick, snowfall, and facelift are nouns instead of verbs.例外：尤其是当这些复合词是以一个动词或副词或者是介词结尾的时候。3. Semantically 从语义的角度来看The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum to