《简明语言学教程》大纲_.doc

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguisticsC Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time. Langue and parole 语言和言语 Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)What is language? 什么是语言BArbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词）b) some compound words （某些复合词）Productivity（能产性，创造性）Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学A The definition of phonetics（语音学）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学）Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学）B Organs of speech （发音器官）Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The nasal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号）Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符）E.g.:lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhelp-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated ph(h表示送气)pspit-an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n5bQtna syllabic nasal n (7)D Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类）In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created)Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/gFricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /, /, h (approximant)Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t/dLiquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthla lateral sound; r retroflexGlides滑音: w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h approximantsNasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b, w(velar)labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth f/vdental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth /alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, rpalatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate /, t/d, jvelars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类） The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except BAll the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowelsF The definition of phonology（音位学）Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.G Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）H Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/ （要会判断！）Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.I Some rules in phonology sequential rules 序列规则 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：No1:_/s/ 第一个音位一定是/s/_voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/_approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates t,d and the sibilants s,z, are not to be followed by another sibilants. assimilation rules 同化规则Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象 deletion rule/Elision 省略规则Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的g音J Suprasegmental features （超音段特征） Stress重音Word stress & sentence stress：The stress of the English compounds always on the first element Tone声调Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. 汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 阴平 阳平 上声 去声 Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四种语调The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学A The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morpheme:词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素） (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能)B Free morphemes & bound morphemes（自由词素和黏着词素）Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words Lexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes n.Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form Derivational morphemes派生词素affix词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根 Inflectional morphemes 曲折词素 8 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -s, -s possessive所有格; plural复数Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular第三人称单数; present participle现在分词; past tense过去式, past participle过去分词Adj + -er, -est comparative比较级; superlative最高级C Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折D Morphological Rules 形态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词）N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralizationE Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g.map-maps sdog-dogs zwatch-watches izmouse-mice aiox-oxen ntooth-teeth sheep-sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.F Word-formation process（构词法） Coinagethe invention of totally new terms （创造全新的词） Borrowingthe taking over of words form other languages Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词） Blending taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Conversion category change, functional shift Acronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words Derivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加词缀） Abbreviation a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （缩短原词）Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学A The definition of syntaxSyntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） BSome categories（范畴）Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短语范畴 phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短语结构规则）S NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S) “”：包括/分为VP (qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S) “( )”：内部的成分可以省略AP (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S) “”：可以选择附加其他补语PP (deg.)P NPX- bar theoryHead an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXP (Specifier) X (complement) DTransformational rules 转换规则D-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.F Immediate Constituent Analysis （IC Analysis）IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemesLabeled IC analysisChapter 5 Semantics 语义学A Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）B Some views concerning the study of meaning 关于意义研究的一些观点 the naming theory命名论 the conceptualist view概念论 Thought/reference concept 思想/指称Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式 Referent (real object)所指 contextualism: John Firth 语境论 behaviorism Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist viewS: stimulus r: responseJill JackS-rs-R(the small letters r, sspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Spractical events)C Sense and reference （意义和指称）Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.（主要涉及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）Moving star I once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.D Major sense relations（主要的意义关系） synonymy同义现象 the sameness or close similarity of meaninga. dialectal synonyms方言同义词synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语） b. stylistic synonyms文体同义词synonyms differing in style （问题、正式度不同）c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义）d. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）e. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同） polysemy多义现象one word that has more than one related meaning homonymy 同音异义Homophones: when two words are identical in sound同音异义 发音一样Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling同形异义 拼写一样Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound完全同音异义词 hyponymy下义关系 inclusiveness 包含关系The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.上坐标词The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym. Co-hyponym下坐标词 antonymy反义词oppositenessGradable antonyms 等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementary antonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female）Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items（关系反义词）E Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系 X is synonymous with Y X is inconsistent with Y X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) X is a contradiction X自我矛盾（总是假） X is semantically anomalous X语义反常F Componential analysisa way to analyze lexical meaning （成分分析法分析词汇意义的方法）Semantic features语义特征: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic featuresPhoneme distinctive features区别特征Show how those words are related in meaningG Predication analysisa way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech（述谓结构分析法分析句子意义的方法） the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components) Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning 包括语法意义和语义意义Grammaticality 语法规范性 selectional restrictions选择限制规则Semantic analysis:Predication (basic unit)述谓结构 the abstract meaning of the sentence句子的抽象意义Argument(s) 变元（名词成分） predicate谓词（谓语）Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentenceThe predicate can be regarded as the main element.Tom smokes. TOM (SMOKE) one-place predicationKids like apples. KID, APPLE (LIKE) two-place predicationIts rain