戴炜栋何兆熊《简明语言学教程》.ppt

WelcometoLinguistics ANewCourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish GoalsforThisCourse Togetascientificviewonlanguage Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguisticsinordertounderstandhowlanguageisconstructed howlanguageoperates howlanguageisusedtodothings howlanguageisacquiredorlearnt howlanguagechangesovertimeandvariesaccordingtothesituation etc Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteachingToprepareforthefutureresearchwork RequirementsforThisCourse Classattendance 10 Classroomdiscussion 10 Fulfillmentofassignments 10 FinalExamination 70 References 戴炜栋 何兆熊 2002 新编简明英语语言学教程 上海外语教育出版社 Textbook 胡壮麟 2001 语言学教程 北京大学出版社 刘润清 1995 西方语言学流派 外语教学与研究出版社 Fromkin V R Rodman 1998 AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition Orlando Florida Holt Ranehart Winston Inc StudyMethods CombinationofMacroscopicandMicroscopicPerspective宏观与微观相结合1 GeneralgraspoftheCONTENTSContentsisthedistilledsummaryandabstractofthetextprovidingthemainideaofeachchapteraswellastherelationshipamongthechapters 2 DetailedStudyofeachchapterThedetailedstudyofeachchapterwillhelpyoutounderstandthecontentsbetter ThatistosayFirstreadthecontentstomakeathickbookthinSecondreadeachchaptertomakethebookthickThirdthefinalreviewaccordingtothecontentstomakethebookthinagain 2 CombinationofUnderstandingandMemory TheoryandPracticeTheonlywaytomemorizethebasicconceptsinlinguisticsistounderstandandanalyzetheexamplesgiventoprovetheconcepts Theconvenienceoflinguisticstudyisthatyoucanfindtherawmaterialsforlinguisticseverywhereinthelanguageuse Trytothinkofmoreexamplesfromyourownlanguagepracticetounderstandandexplaintheoriesandconceptsconcerned Theapplicationoftheoryintopracticecansharpenyourunderstandingabouttheoryitself CombinationofComparisonandContrastComparisonandcontrastaretheindispensablewaysinthestudyoflanguage Comparisonhelpstofindthesimilaritiesbetweendifferentconceptswhilecontrasthelpstounderstandtheirdiscrepancy Theemploymentofbothofthemhelptoperceivetheinterrelationshipamongthelinguisticconcepts CombinationofReadingandExercises阅读与练习相结合Thepurposeofthecourse besidesbasicknowledgeaboutlinguistics aimsattheapplicationofthemethodsandtheories Thus exercisesandtestsassesstheunderstandingoftheknowledge butnotstudyinordertositinatest Doreadthetextbeforecomingtotheclass Don tturntotheChinesetranslationimmediatelywithoutreadingtheEnglishtexts HistoryofLinguistics AlthoughtheformalstudyoflanguagedatesfromatleastthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumBCinIndiaandancientGreece theeraofscientificlanguagestudyiscommonlydatedfromtheendofthe18c whenEnglishwasdiscoveredtohavethesameancestorasanumberofEuropeanandAsianlanguages ThisdiscoveryinitiatedatleastacenturyofintenseinterestinCOMPARATIVEPHILOLOGY whichinvolveduncoveringlinksbetweenlanguages writingcomparativegrammarsofrelatedlanguages andreconstructingtheircommon ancestors HistoryofLinguistics TheseactivitiesstimulatedasearchforthemechanismsunderlyingLANGUAGECHANGE Inthe20thcentury achangeofemphasisoccurred largelythroughtheworkoftheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure sometimesregardedas thefatherofmodernlinguistics HeadvocatedseparatingDIACHRONIC historical fromSYNCRONIC contemporaryorco occurring aspectsoflanguagestudy HistoryofLinguistics Hearguedthatlanguageatanypointintimeisaninterlockingstructure inwhichallitemsareinterdependent aninsightwhichisnowtakenforgrantedinlinguisticsandformsthebasisof20thcenturystructuralism Inthe1930sand1940s descriptivelinguisticswasdevelopedlargelyintheUS aslinguistssoughttodescribethefast disappearingAmericanIndianlanguages withEdwardSapirandLeonardBloomfieldbeingregardedjointlyasthe fatherofAmericanLinguistics HistoryofLinguistics Midwaythroughthe20thcentury NoamChomskytriggeredanotherchangeofdirection whenheinvestigatedworkingenerativelinguistics aconcernfortheprinciplesinthemindsofspeakerswhichcouldgeneratelanguage accountfortheirknowledgeoflanguageinanexplicitway 刘润清 2002 西方语言学流派 外语教学与研究出版社 Chapter1 Introduction 1 Whatislanguage Languagecanmean whatapersonsays e g badlanguage expressions thewayofspeakingorwriting e g Shakespeare slanguage Luxun slanguage aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting e g languageforspecialpurpose colloquiallanguage theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech writingbehaviorofacommunity e g Chineselanguage firstlanguage thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages e g Hestudieslanguage atoolforhumancommunication socialfunction asetofrules rule governed EdwardSapir sdefinition 1921 Languageisapurelyhumanandnon instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols R A Hall sdefinition 1968 Languageis theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral auditoryarbitrarysymbols NoamChomsky sdefinition 1957 FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof finiteorinfinite sentences eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements Languagecanbegenerallydefinedas asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication Languageisasystem Systematic rule governed elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules can tbecombinedatwill e g bkli Iappleeat Languageisarbitrary Arbitrary nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes e g pen byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith Languageissymbolicinnature Symbolic wordsareassociatedwithobjects actionsideasbyconvention Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet Shakespeare Languageisprimarilyvocal Vocal theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform Languageishuman specific Human specific differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess e g birdsongs beedance animalcries Thedesign definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage CharlesHockett ArbitrarinessProductivity CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission Arbitrariness Nological motivatedorintrinsic connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings Onomatopoeicwords whichimitatenaturalsounds aresomewhatmotivated English rumble crackle bang Chinese putong shasha dingdang Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary e g type writer shoe maker air conditioner photocopy Productivity Creativity Peculiartohumanlanguages usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore e g wecanunderstandsentencelike Ared eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted makinganynoveltyimpossible Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance beesdonot talk aboutthemselves thehives orwind letaloneaboutpeople animals hopesordesires Duality doublearticulation Lowerlevel sounds meaningless Higherlevel meaning largerunitsofmeaning Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning words andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences wemakedictionaryofalanguage butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings whicharenotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast presentorfuture orinfar awayplaces AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood Inthissense thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries CulturalTransmission Languageisculturallytransmitted throughteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted Allcats gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats gibbonsandbees AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted Thatis itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Thestoryofawolfchild apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage TheOriginofLanguage 人们一直在探讨人类语言最初从何处以及怎样发展起来的这类问题 不过几乎没有什么事实证据来证实语言的确切起源 因为人类语言也许和人类一样古老 而书面记录的材料只可以追溯到大约四千年前 学者们对动物交际的某些形式进行类推 对儿童学习和掌握语言的过程以及对 原始 语言进行类推 企图从中探明语言的起源 许多人对此提出了不同的假设性的解释 TheOriginofLanguage Thedivine origintheory LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind Theinventiontheory imitative criesofnature thegruntsofmenworkingtogether Theevolutionarytheory theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment TheOriginofLanguage 1 Thebow wowtheory 汪汪理论 Peopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironment 2 Thepooh poohtheory 噗噗理论 Ourprimitiveancestorsutteredinstinctivesoundsofpain angerandjoy 3 Theyo he hotheory 哟 嗬 哟理论 Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether theyproducedrhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage TheOriginofLanguage 1 缪勒 M Muller 1823 1900 提出 本能论 ding dongtheoryornativistictheory 认为声音和意义之间有神秘的关联 人类语言是从原始人用声音来表示所遇到的事件这一过程中发展起来的 2 叶斯柏森 1660 1943 认为 语言是从原始储藏式不清楚的赞歌中发展起来的 sing songtheory唱歌说 3 格雷 L H Gray 1875 1955 提出 感叹说 pooh poohorexclamation interjectionaltheory 该假说把语言的起源归结为表达感情的种种感叹语词 TheOriginofLanguage 4 诺瓦雷 L Noire 1847 1889 以在繁重劳动中发出的喊声来解释语言的起源 即所谓 喊声说 yo he hotheory 5 帕杰特 R Paget 1869 1955 认为 语言是从某些手势和舌头动作的结合中发展起来的 ta tatheory达达说 动物叫声说 animalcrytheory 摹声说 bow wow cuckoo animalcryonomatopoeic heynonny nonnytheory 等 6 Marxistview languagewascreatedintheprocessofworking FunctionsofLanguage Thetermcommunicationcanbeusedtocovermostofthefunctionoflanguage Butthefunctionoflanguageisvaried FunctionsofLanguage Jacobsondefinedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent namely speaker addressee context message code context Correspondingtothesefactors heestablishedawell knownframeworkoflanguagefunctions Referential toconveymessageandinformation context Poetic toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake message Emotive toexpressattitudes feelingsandemotions addresser Conative topersuadeandinfluenceotherthroughcommandsandentreaties addressee Phatic toestablishcommunionwithothers contact Metalingual toclearupintentions wordsandmeanings code FunctionsofLanguage M A K Halliday sSummaryoftheFunctionsofLanguage 1 informative function2 interpersonalfunction3 performativefunction4 emotivefunction5 phaticcommunion6 recreationalfunction7 metalingualfunction FunctionsofLanguage Phatic establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact Directive getthehearertodosomething Informative giveinformationaboutfacts Interrogative getinformationfromothers Expressive expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker Evocative createcertainfeelingsinthehearer amuse startle soothe worryorplease Performative languageisusedtodothings toperformactions 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学 至少不够严谨 他对语言的定义做了如下概括 语言是一种符号系统 当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候 它是表达相互反应的中介 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候 它是认知事物的工具 当它作用于文化的时候 它是文化的载体 2 Whatislinguistics Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies Exhaustiveness adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics Theoreticallinguistics micro linguistics PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsUseoflinguistics macro linguistics AppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics Theoreticallinguistics Phonetics speechsound description classification transcription articulatoryphonetics acousticphonetics auditoryphonetics Phonology soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology theformofwordsSyntax therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence Semantics themeaningoflanguage whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse Pragmatics Useoflinguistics Appliedlinguistics linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics socialfactors e g class education affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics linguisticandliterature Someotherapplications AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics e g machinetranslation artificialintelligence SomeImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics DescriptivevsPrescriptive Descriptive describe analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse modernlinguistic Prescriptive laydownrulesfor correct linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage traditionalgrammar SynchronicvsDiachronic Synchronicstudy descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime modernlinguistics Diachronicstudy descriptionofalanguagethroughtime historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime SpeechvsWriting Speech primarymediumoflanguageWriting laterdeveloped LanguevsParole F deSaussure Langue theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity Parole therealizationoflangueinactualuse Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions CompetenceandPerformance Chomsky Competence theidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual TraditionalGrammarvsModernLinguistics Traditionalgrammar prescriptive written Latin basedframeworkModernlinguistics descriptive spoken notnecessarilyLatin basedframework Chapter2Phonology Languageisprimarilyvocal Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds butinspeechsounds soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication Phonetics Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription classificationandtranscription e g p bilabial stop Threebranchesofphonetics Articulatoryphonetics fromthespeakers pointofview howspeakersproducespeechsounds Auditoryphonetics fromthehearers pointofview howsoundsareperceived Acousticphonetics fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother Articulatoryphonetics Speechorgans threeimportantareas Pharyngealcavity thethroat Theoralcavity themouth Nasalcavity thenose Thediagramofspeechorgans LipsTeethTeethridge alveolar HardpalateSoftpalate velum UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet IPA ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound Broadtranscription usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose withoutdiacritics e g clear l pit Narrowtranscription usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy withdiacritics e g dark l aspirated p Somemajorarticulatoryvariables dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary Voicing voiced voicelessNasality nasal non nasalAspiration aspirated unaspirated ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories VowelsConsonantsNote Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheair streammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat thenoseorthemouth whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed ClassificationofConsonants Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulation TheMannerofArticulation stops plosives p b t d k g fricatives f v s z W T F V h affricates tF dV liquids l lateral r nasals m n N glides semivowels w j ThePlaceofArticulation bilabial p b m w labiodental f v dental W T alveolar t d s z n l r palatal F V tF dV j velar k g N glottal h ThePlaceofArticulation Bilabial Labiodental Dentalorinterdental Alveolar Palatoalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal TheDescriptionofEnglishConsonants ClassificationofVowels Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories Monophthongsorpure singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels MonophthongsorPure SingleVowels Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction thevowelscanbedistinguishedas frontvowels I I e Z A B centralvowels E E Q backvowels u u C C B Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth Close I I u u Semi close e E Semi open E C Open A B C B Q Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding rounded u u C C unrounded I I e Z A B E E Q B Accordingtothelengthofthevowels long I E u C B short I e Z A E Q B u C Diphthongs glidingvowels ei ai aU EU Ri iE ZE UE Exercises underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired Abilabialconsonant madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato alveolarconsonant sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant liebuythighthytieryeAglide onewaryolkrush Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate racksuchridgebooze Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired Acentralvowel madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel paidreapfooltopgoodfather Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions vd vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither Phonology Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds thatis thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages Phonetics Phonology Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage thespeechsounds Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus Phoneticsisofgeneralnature itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages itaimstoanswerquestionslike howtheyareproduced howtheydifferfromeachother whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave howtheycanbeclassified etc Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication Phone phoneme allophone Phone Aphone aphoneticunitorsegment Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning somedo somedon t e g bI t bIt spIt sphIt Phoneme Aphoneme isaphonologicalunit itisaunitofdistinctivevalue anabstractunit not