新编语言学教程第一章 chapter1

1、A Course on Linguistics for Students of EnglishLinguistics: A New Coursebook新编语言学教程新编语言学教程The Goals for this CourseThe Goals for this Course To get a scientific view on language;To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand some basic theories o

2、n linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL),

3、cross-cultural communicationcommunication; ; To prepare for the future research work. To prepare for the future research work. 语言学学习应注意的方面：语言学学习应注意的方面： 1) 1) 术语问题术语问题 2 2）语言学理论问题）语言学理论问题 3 3）语言学研究方法问题）语言学研究方法问题 4 4）语言学研究名家）语言学研究名家 5 5）学习习惯问题）学习习惯问题Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 1 Introduction I I Lin

4、guistics Linguistics 1. 1. Definition of linguisticsDefinition of linguistics 2. Linguistics and traditional grammar2. Linguistics and traditional grammar 3. Use of studying linguistics 3. Use of studying linguistics 4. Scope of linguistics4. Scope of linguistics II Language II Language 1. Why Study

5、 Language?1. Why Study Language? 2. Definitions of language2. Definitions of language 3. Origin of language 3. Origin of language 4. Design Features of Language4. Design Features of Language 5. Functions of language5. Functions of language Some major concepts in linguistics Some major concepts in li

6、nguistics 1. Definition of Linguistics1. Definition of Linguistics Linguistics is the Linguistics is the scientific or systematic scientific or systematic study of languagestudy of language (p.1). (p.1). 语言学常被定义为一门关于语言的科学或对语言学常被定义为一门关于语言的科学或对语言的科学研究。语言的科学研究。 A person who studies linguistics is known

7、 A person who studies linguistics is known as aas a linguist linguist. . 1)Four principles of linguistic studies(P1)1)Four principles of linguistic studies(P1) Exhaustiveness/adequacy Exhaustiveness/adequacy （穷尽性）：（穷尽性）：use use adequate samples in the study.adequate samples in the study. The linguis

8、ts should gather all the materials The linguists should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. adequate explanation. If he leaves many facts undiscussed or unexplained, If he leaves many facts undis

9、cussed or unexplained, his study will not be regarded as exhaustive and his his study will not be regarded as exhaustive and his conclusions will not be accepted as scientific.conclusions will not be accepted as scientific. Consistency Consistency （一致性）：（一致性）：keep the rules keep the rules consistent

10、 in the study of a language. There consistent in the study of a language. There should be should be no contradictionno contradiction between different between different parts of the total statement.parts of the total statement. Economy Economy （简洁性、经济性）：（简洁性、经济性）：rule out the rule out the redundancy

11、, redundancy, make key partmake key part stand out in language stand out in language description or language analysis. Other things description or language analysis. Other things being equal, being equal, a short statement or analysis is a short statement or analysis is preferredpreferred to a longe

12、r or more complex one. to a longer or more complex one. ObjectivityObjectivity（客观性）：（客观性）：describe a language describe a language as it is.as it is. A linguist should be as objective as possible in A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot his d

13、escription and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his allow prejudice to influence his generalizations.generalizations.2) Two purposes (p.2)2) Two purposes (p.2)a. Linguistics studies the nature of language in a. Linguistics studies the nature of language in order to order to e

14、stablish a theoryestablish a theory of language and of language and describes languagesdescribes languages in the light of the theory in the light of the theory established.established.b. Linguistics examines b. Linguistics examines all the forms of languageall the forms of language in in general an

15、d seeks a scientific understanding of the general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life. serves and the functions it performs in human

16、life. 2. The difference between linguistics and 2. The difference between linguistics and traditional grammar (P2-3)traditional grammar (P2-3)Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and pre-linguistic product language description and

17、 pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek (e.g. English had six cases because Latin or Greek (e.g. English had six cases because Latin had six cases) , and laid emphasisLatin had six cases) , and laid emphas

18、is onon correctnesscorrectness, , literaryliterary excellenceexcellence, the use of , the use of LatinLatin modelsmodels, and the , and the prioritypriority ofof writtenwritten languagelanguage. . 2. Linguistics vs. Traditional GrammarA. Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.A linguist is int

19、erested in what is said, not what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not p r e s c r i b e r u l e s o f c o r r e c t n e s s . H e d o e s not believe that there i s s o m e absolute standard of correctnessconcerning language use. Instead, he would prefe

20、r to be an observer and recorder of facts, but not a judge. Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character. The grammarian saw it as his task to formulate t h e s t a n d a r d s o f correctness and to i m p o s e t h e s e , i f necessary, upon the s p e a k e r s o f t h e language.B

21、.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.c) Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. Traditional grammar - Traditional grammar - prescriptive, prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkwritten, Latin-

22、based framework 规定性的、规定性的、书面语的，放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架书面语的，放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内内 Modern linguistics - Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based frameworknot necessarily Latin-based framework 描描述性的、口头语的，不强行放进一个拉丁述性的、口头语的，不强行放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内语为基础的框架内Weakpoints of Traditio

23、nal Grammar1. 规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，规定语法学家认为： I didnt do nothing.正确的解释为: It is not true that I did nothing.或 I did something.但是，英语使用的现实却是这两种相互矛盾的语义都存在。语义的区别是通过语言的语音规律加以实现的。在前者， “didnt”重读，而后者 “didnt不重读 。再看下列例

24、句： All the children didnt sleep (All the children failed to sleep.) All the children didnt sleep. (Not all the children failed to sleep.)这两个话语在语义上的差异也是违反了传统逻辑规律。语音规律的介入很好地解决了这一问题： All the children didnt sleep. (重音落在sleep上，且使用降调) All the children didnt sleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升调）事实上，这种突破一般逻辑规律的现象在其它语言中也时

25、常可见。以汉语为例： 今天街上好热闹。 今天街上好不热闹。再看汉语中的“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法： 他差点儿摔倒了。 他差点儿没摔倒。 我差点儿通过了考试。 我差点儿没通过考试。如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。 2. There are no absolute standards of correctness in language uses. 秋浦歌 白发三千丈， 缘愁似个长。 不知明镜里， 何处得秋霜。 单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白

26、发，人所共晓，而长达三千丈，该有多少深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个“愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想出奇句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔力。3. Use of studying linguistics (pp.3-4)3. Use of studying linguistics (pp.3-4)1) To have an 1) To have an overviewoverview of human language; of human language;2) To understand that human languages have 2) To understand that h

27、uman languages have important features in common though they important features in common though they differ greatly in many detailsdiffer greatly in many details; ;3) To go along the path leading to the final 3) To go along the path leading to the final profession either as a profession either as a

28、 teacherteacher of foreign of foreign languages or as a languages or as a researcherresearcher of linguistics or of linguistics or translation (p.4)translation (p.4)4. Scope of linguistics (pp.4-8)4. Scope of linguistics (pp.4-8)1) microlinguistics VS macrolinguistics1) microlinguistics VS macroling

29、uistics Micro Microlinguistics: linguistics: Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.Pragmatics. These branches are at the very These branches are at the very centercenter of linguistic scope. of linguistic scope. Macro Mac

30、rolinguistics: linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics, Stylistics, Discourse analysis , Computational linguistics , Stylistics, Discourse analysis , Computational linguistics , Cognitive linguistics Cognitive linguist

31、ics These branches are related to something that is not at the These branches are related to something that is not at the center of linguistic scope. center of linguistic scope. 2) Linguistics classified from different perspectives2) Linguistics classified from different perspectives functional func

32、tional linguistics VS linguistics VS formalformal linguistics linguistics the former stresses the function of language and the the former stresses the function of language and the latter stresses the form of languagelatter stresses the form of language theoreticaltheoretical linguistics VS linguisti

33、cs VS appliedapplied linguistics linguistics the former studies the the former studies the “purepure” theory in language theory in language and the latter studies how to apply the theory and the latter studies how to apply the theory Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics1. 1.Phonetics Phone

34、tics 语音学语音学2.2.Phonology Phonology 音系学音系学3.3.MorphologyMorphology形态学形态学4.4.Syntax Syntax 句法学句法学5.5.Semantics Semantics 语义学语义学Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics1. 1.Applied linguistics Applied linguistics 应用语应用语言学言学2.2.Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics 社会语言社会语言学学3.3.Psycholinguistics Psycholinguist

35、ics 心理语言心理语言学学 corpuscorpus linguistics linguisticslinguistic description based linguistic description based on the extensive accumulation of naturally on the extensive accumulation of naturally occurring language data and its analysis by occurring language data and its analysis by computerscomputer

36、s语料库语言学语料库语言学 forensic forensic linguisticslinguisticsthe examination of the examination of linguistic evidence for legal purposes linguistic evidence for legal purposes 法律语言法律语言学学 mathematical mathematical linguisticslinguisticsthe study of the the study of the mathematical properties of languagema

37、thematical properties of language数学语言数学语言学学 anthropological anthropological linguisticslinguisticsthe study of the study of language in cross-cultural settingslanguage in cross-cultural settings人类语言学人类语言学 3) Recent developments of linguistics:3) Recent developments of linguistics: Corpus linguistics

38、, Corpus linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Cognitive linguistics, Cognitive linguistics, Computational linguistics, Computational linguistics, Mathematical linguisticsMathematical linguistics II Language II Language 1. Why Study Language?1. Why Study Language? finding out more abo

39、ut how the finding out more about how the brain works;brain works; How children learn language; How children learn language; What the relationship between What the relationship between meaning and perception is;meaning and perception is; What role of language is in What role of language is in differ

40、ent cultures;different cultures; Fundamental views about languageFundamental views about language Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.without instruction. Language operates by rules.Language o

41、perates by rules. All languages have three major components: a sound All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexico-grammar and a system of system, a system of lexico-grammar and a system of semantics.semantics. Everyone speaks a dialect.Everyone speaks a dialect. Lang

42、uage slowly changes.Language slowly changes. Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.of jargons. Languages are intimately related to the societies and Languages are intimately related to the societies and in

43、dividuals who use them.individuals who use them. 2. What is Language?Language Language “is not to be confused with is not to be confused with human speech which is only a definite human speech which is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It part, though certainly an essential on

44、e. It is both a social product of the faculty of is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to social body to pe

45、rmit individuals to exercise that facultyexercise that faculty”. .-Ferdinand de Saussure (-Ferdinand de Saussure (索绪尔：索绪尔：1857-1857-1913)1913)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”-Edward Sapir (萨

46、丕尔萨丕尔 ，1884-1939):“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”-Noam Chomsky (诺姆诺姆乔姆斯基乔姆斯基， 1928- ) 语言是人类特有的一种符号系统语言是人类特有的一种符号系统。当作用于人与人的关系的时候。当作用于人与人的关系的时候，它是表达相互反应的中介；当，它是表达相互反应的中介；当作用于人与

47、客观世界的关系的时作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具；当作候，它是认知事物的工具；当作用于文化的时候，它是文化信息用于文化的时候，它是文化信息的载体。的载体。 （许国璋（许国璋中国大百科全书中国大百科全书 语言文字语言文字）A generally acceptable definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是一个具有语言是一个具有任意性任意性用于用于人类人类交流的交流的语音符语音符号系统号系统Language is a systemL

48、anguage is a system SystemicSystemic- rule-governed, elements - rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain in it are arranged according to certain rules; canrules; cant be combined at will.t be combined at will. e.g. e.g. * *bkli, bkli, * *I apple eat.I apple eat. 语言是一个系统，语言的要素是

49、根据语言是一个系统，语言的要素是根据规则组合在一起的。规则组合在一起的。Language is arbitraryLanguage is arbitrary ArbitraryArbitrary- no intrinsic connection - no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. denotes, e.g. “penpen” by any other name is by any other name is the

50、thing we use to write with.the thing we use to write with. 语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系内在的必然的联系. . “pen”“other name” By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meanings and .考研链接中山大学中山大学2003年考题年考题soundLanguage is primarily vocalLanguage

51、is primarily vocal VocalVocal- the primary medium is sound for all - the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. than spoken form. 语言是有声的，因为所有语言是有声的，因为所有语言的首要媒介都是声音语言的首要媒介都是声音. . Writing is derivative of sp

52、eech.Language is symbolic in nature SymbolicSymbolic- words are associated with objects, - words are associated with objects, actions ideas byactions ideas by convention convention. . 象征性象征性词语只是词语只是符号，符号，它们通过它们通过习惯习惯与物与物体、动作和概念联系起来。体、动作和概念联系起来。“桌子”, “Desk”convention“A rose by any other name would sm

53、ell as sweet”ConventionLanguage is human-specific Human-specificHuman-specific- different from the - different from the communication systems other forms of communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.animal cr

54、ies.语言是人类独有的，有别语言是人类独有的，有别于其他生物的交际系统于其他生物的交际系统 鸟有鸟语，人有人言。鸟有鸟语，人有人言。 Bertrand Russell once observed: Bertrand Russell once observed: “No No matter how eloquently a dog may matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.

55、parents were poor but honest. 3. Origin of language (pp.9-10)3. Origin of language (pp.9-10) Because no one can say how and when language Because no one can say how and when language originated, there are some originated, there are some speculationsspeculations about it. about it. 1) Plato: There wa

56、s a 1) Plato: There was a “perfectperfect” language; language; 2) Socrates: 2) Socrates: Imitation Imitation of natural sounds was the of natural sounds was the basis for the origin of language;basis for the origin of language; 3) 3) ManMans instinctive responses instinctive response to certain exte

57、rnal to certain external stimuli was the basis for the origin of language;stimuli was the basis for the origin of language; 4) 4) Ding-DongDing-Dong Theory: Human speech developed Theory: Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to from primitive man giving vocal expression

58、to the objects he encountered; the objects he encountered; 5) 5) Sing-Song Sing-Song Theory: Language developed from Theory: Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise;primitive ritual songs of praise; 6) 6) “Poor-PoohPoor-Pooh (Exclamation or Interjectional) (Exclamation or Interjecti

59、onal) TheoryTheory” stresses the speaker stresses the speakers emotion; s emotion; ( (感叹说感叹说: :认为语言起源于感叹词认为语言起源于感叹词) ) 7) 7) “Yo-He-Ho TheoryYo-He-Ho Theory”: cries uttered during : cries uttered during strain of work;strain of work;劳动号子说劳动号子说 8) 8) “Ta-Ta TheoryTa-Ta Theory”: : Language came from t

60、he Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue combination of certain gestures and tongue movement;movement; 9) 9) “Bow-Wow TheoryBow-Wow Theory”: imitation of animal : imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.cries and other sounds heard in nature. 10).10). “The The