语言学讲解和名词解释

语言学讲解和名词解释语言学讲解和名词解释语言学讲解和名词解释语言学讲解和名词解释编制仅供参考审核批准生效日期地址：电话：传真:邮编:第一章Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsTeachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutlanguageandlinguistics.Teachingdifficulties:designfeaturesoflanguage;someimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsTeachingprocedureslanguageWhystudylanguage为什么学习语言Atoolforcommunication交流的工具Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.Whatislanguage什么是语言differentsensesoflanguage语言的不同意义1.whatapersonsays(concreteactofspeech)aperson’sconsistentwayofspeakingorwritingaparticularlevelofspeakingorwriting.colloquiallanguageanabstractsystem2.Awebster’sNewDictionraryoffersafrequentlyusedsenseoftheword“language”:a.humanspeech人类的言语b.theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans通过言语来交流的能力c.asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d.thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem系统的文字表达3.thebarestofdefinition,languageisameansofverbalcommunication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Languageisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemiosticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.Languagedistinguishesusfromanimals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.definitions一.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatiscommunicationAprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toagoal(receiverorlistener).Asystem----sinceelementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrulessystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Theycannotbearrangedatwill..Hethetablecleaned.(×)bkli(×)WhydowesaylanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----thereisnointrinsic(logic)connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning,betweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguagehavedifferentwordsforthesameobject,itisgoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.itisonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethearbitraryoflanguageisafamousquotationfromshakepeare’splay:”RomeoandJuliet:Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----wordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasbynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvovalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Vocal--------theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeakandlistenbeforetheywriteorreadalsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.Human----languageishuman-specific.Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.“LanguageAcquisitionDevice”(LAD)二.Whatcharacteristicsoflangaugedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprenhensivedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisarule-governedsystem;langaugeisbasicallyvocal;langaugeisarbitrary;langagueisusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征Designfeatures------referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity/productivity,displacement,cluturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.Designfeatures-----arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)

TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.Whatisarbitrariness任意性a.arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)

ItwasdiscussedbySaussurelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention..“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)arbitrarybetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a.By“arbitrary”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。Agogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforagig.Languagethereforeislargelyarbitrary.b.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang””crash””roar””rumble””cakle”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词c.somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitaryeither.“type”and”write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.arbitraryandonometopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。Eg.Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。Arbitraryatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Accordingtosystematic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionlists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----itreferstothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。Aribrtaryandconvention任意性和约定性Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。Theothersideofcoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.Arbitrainessoflangaugemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Otherpeople,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationorcorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnectionbetweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andforthem,thesetsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.b.duality(二重性):---onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchasunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsoftheandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningfulthelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.Dog:woof(butnot“w-oo-f”)Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations.words)whicharedistinctinmeaning.TheprincipleofeconomyLinguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagesofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.).Atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHUZHUANGLIN,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels,oneofsoundandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimprotantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asamllnumberofsenmanticwords/units,andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanmialcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。lic.Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.creativity(创造性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,bycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.(指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。.anexperimentofbeecommunication:Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,willfailtodosoifthelocationisreally‘new’.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswasplacedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakentothetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthefreefood.Theyflowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn’tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethatbeecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelatedtohorizontadistance.Thebeecannotcreatea‘new’messageindicatingverticaldistance.Noonehasneversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusproductivityisalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。d.displacement(移位性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)Beecommunication:Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothehive,itcanperformacomplexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefornearbyandtail-waggingdance,withvariabletempo,forfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethisnewlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinanextremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.Displacement,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguag,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealorunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeak,thatmeanslanguagehasthefeatureofdisplacement.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,foresxample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccuring,orsoemthingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandicideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcounldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasamllshareof“displacement”,butit’sanunspeakabletinysharee.Culturaltransmission----genetictransmissionYouacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparentalgenes.Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguagapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelkiethedog’sbarkingsystem.（人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）Ifahumanbegingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelangauge.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。erchangeability互换性interchangeablitymeansthatanyhumanbegingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereisdifferatiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarkds,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog/dogsis/are“speaking”andwhichlistening.WhatfeatruesofhumanlangaugehavebeenspecifiedbyC.HocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystemArbitrainess----asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof.Duality----afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication.Creativity----animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.Displacement----noanimalcantalkaboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation.Culturaltransmission-----detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunicaiton.WhydolinguistssaylangaugeishumanspecificFirstofall,huanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsysmtensdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“Americansignlanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteacehrshappybutdidnotmakethelinguistscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchampanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notenenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.Originoflanguage语言的起源functionsoflanguage语言的功能Jakobsondifinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:Referentialfuntion-----toconveymessageandimformation所指功能：传达信息Poeticfuntion-----toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake诗学功能：完全就语言而语言Emotivefuntion----toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情Conativefuntion----topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人Phaticfuntion----toestablishcommunionwithothers交感功能：与他人建议交流Metalingualfunction-----toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：Ideationalfunction----constructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系Interpersonalfunction-----enactssocialrelationships人际功能：反映了社会关系textualfunctions----createsrelevancetocontext.语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,thatis,instrumental,regulatory,represnetational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。Function(功能):theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,functionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.)languagehasatleastsevenfuntions:patic,directive,informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccoridingtoWangGang(1988),langaugehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunications,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld;atoolbywhichpeoplecreatart.Informativefunction信息功能WhatistheinformativefunctionLangaugeservesan“informatviefunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrueorfalse.AccordingtoP.Grice’s“cooperativeprinciple”,oneoughtnottoviolatethe“maximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.Informativefunctionisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。Hallidaynotesthat“langaugeservesfortheexpressionof‘content’”:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.韩礼德指出“语言为表达‘内容’服务：这个‘内容’就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“Itrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous.它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。Interpersonalfunction人际功能Performativefunction施为功能Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc,areperfomatives.Emotivefunction感情功能Phaticcommunion交感性谈话phaticcommunion(交感性谈话):onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.)broadlyspeaking,phaticfuncionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslangs,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。Thephaticfunctionreferstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactsthanforexchangingimformationorideas.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandclotinginChinesealllservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlangauge(eg,“howareyou”“fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon’tsay“hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“hi”,youruinyourfriendship.Recreationalfunction娱乐性功能Whatistheevocativefunction什么是娱乐性功能The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatcertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelisterner;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefuntionsoftengotogether,.youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissurebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’saslothecasewiththeotherwayround.Metalingualfunction元语言功能metalanguage(元语言):certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。WhatisthedirectfunctionThe“directionfunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfuntion..“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”Whatistheinterrogativefunction什么是疑问功能Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.accordingtothe“indirectsppechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,.“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetorialquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listerner’sanswer.WhatistheexpressivefunctionThe“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”.sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefuncitontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevoluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.islinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallyascientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamajorbranchofsocialscience.Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneral.语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研究的并不是某种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言的共性。Ascientificstudyisonewhichisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------testedbyfurtherobservation------theoryAlinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguage,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguagisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagvariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconsturctedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Lingusiticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguageingeneral.Linguisticstduyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthenticlanguagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelingusisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehyphotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.WhatmakeslinguisticsascienceSincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciple:exhaustiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.(1)Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplaination,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.(2)Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocountradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.(3)Economymeansaliguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenisispossible.(4).Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshoudbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstituespartofthelinguisticsresearch.Mainbranches(scope)oflinguistics语言学的主要分支Lingusiticsshouldincludeatleastfivebranches,namely:phonologic,morphologic,syntactic,senmanticandpragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。Generallingusitics普通语言学-------thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsappliableinanylinguisticstudy.把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。phonetics语音学-----studiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接等等。Phonetics----Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunityledtoestablishmentofabrachoflinguisticscalledphonetics.Howspeechareproducedandclassified.phonology音系学（音位学）-----studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointo