动物生物学-结构功能

AnintroductiontoanimalstructureandfunctionAnimalstructureandfunctionarecloselycorrelatedByconsideringthefractionofbodymassinlegmusclesandtheforcesuchmusclescangenerate,scientistscanestimatemaximumrunningspeedforawiderangeofbodyplans.Tyrannosaurusrex,霸王龙是行动迟缓的动物?Astudyin2007foundthat

Tyrannosaurusrex

hadatoprunningspeedof8metrespersecond(29

km/h).Anatomy（解剖学）：thestudyofthestructureofanorganism.Physiology（生理学）：thestudyofthefunctionsanorganismperforms.AnimalstructureandfunctionarecloselycorrelatedAnimalsinhabitalmosteverypartoftheworld,despitetheiramazingdiversityAllanimalsfaceasimilarsetofproblems,includinghowtonourishthemselves动物结构与功能相适应表现在动物所有的结构层次上AnimalorganizationAnimalischaracterizedbyhierarchicallevelsoforganization.StructureandfunctionarecorrelatedatalllevelsoforganizationAnimalsarecomposedofcellsGroupsofcellswithacommonstructureandfunctionmakeuptissues组织Differenttissuesmakeuporgans器官Groupoforgansthatworktogetherformorgansystems系统.AnimalorganizationDifferenttypesoftissuesHavedifferentstructuresthataresuitedtotheirfunctionsTissuesareclassifiedintofourmaincategoriesEpithelialtissue,上皮组织Connectivetissue,结缔组织Muscletissue,肌肉组织Nervoustissue神经组织上皮组织覆盖在动物体表，包围各个器官的外缘和内腔功能：保护、吸收、分泌等结构特征：细胞排列紧密，细胞间质不发达，上皮组织内缘有基底膜结缔组织功能：连接和支持其它组织特征：细胞排列疏松，细胞间质发达TypesofconnectivetissueLooseconnectivetissue疏松结缔组织Adiposetissue脂肪组织Ligaments韧带

fibroblasts纤维细胞inamatrixofcollagenfibers+bone-to-boneconnectionTendons肌腱

fibroblastsinamatrixoflesselasticfibers+muscle-to-boneconnectionCartilage软骨BonebloodMuscletissue由肌细胞构成，肌细胞呈长形，内含丰富的纤维，能够对神经信号产生收缩Isdividedinthevertebratebodyintothreetypes:Skeletalmuscles,骨骼肌Cardiacmuscles,心肌Smoothmuscles平滑肌SkeletalMuscle -striated(striped) -voluntarymovements随意运动

-multinucleated

SmoothMuscle -branched,tapered梭形

-involuntaryactions非随意运动

CardiacMuscle -striated,branched -theendsofthecellsarejoinedbyintercalateddisks,

闰盘whichrelaysignalsfromcelltocellduringaheartbeat.NervoustissueSensesstimuli刺激andtransmitssignalsthroughouttheanimalThefunctionalunitofnervoustissueistheneuron神经元,ornervecell.OrgansandOrganSystemsInallbutthesimplestanimalsInsomeorgans,thetissuesarearrangedinlayers胃壁粘膜层，粘膜层由上皮组织构成，包裹整个胃腔粘膜下层，粘膜下层由结缔组织及其中的神经和血管共同组成肌肉层，主要是由平滑肌组成0.2mm浆膜层，位于肌肉层外的一层由结缔组织和上皮组织形成的薄层OrganSystemsDigestiveSystem消化系统:mouth…anusCirculatorySystem循环系统:heart,bloodvessels,blood

RespiratorySystem呼吸系统:lungs,trachea,otherbreathingtubesImmuneandLymphaticSystem免疫和淋巴系统:marrow,lymphnodes,spleen,WBC

ExcretorySystem排泄系统:kidneys,ureters,bladder,urethra

EndocrineSystem内分泌:hormone-secretingglands

ReproductiveSystem繁殖系统:ovaries,testes,etc.NervousSystem神经系统:brain,spinalcord,nervesIntegumentarySystem被覆系统:skinanditsderivatives

SkeletalSystem骨骼系统:bones,tendons,ligaments,cartilage

MuscularSystem肌肉系统:skeletalmuscles各系统的生理功能Circulatory:

运送气体、营养和代谢废物Digestive:

获得代谢所需营养、水分和电解质Endocrine:

调节代谢、长期调控Immune:

免疫防御异物的感染Integumentary:

保护和屏障作用Musculoskeletal:

支持、保护和运动Nervous:

对刺激作出迅速反应Reproduction:

物种繁衍Respiratory:O2andCO2,调节pHUrinary:

调节体液量和pH,排出代谢废物Ananimal’sformreflectsnaturalselection自然选择Inthelongterm,naturalselectioncanfitstructure,anatomy,tofunction,physiologyByselecting,overmanygenerations,whatworksbestamongtheavailablevariationsinapopulationAnanimal’ssizeandshapehaveadirecteffectonhowtheanimalexchangesenergyandmaterialswithitssurroundings.ananimal’sbodymustbearrangedsothatallofitsbodylivingcellsarebathedinanaqueousmedium.内环境Internalenvironmentinternalenvironment

(Frenchphysiologist,ClaudeBernard)inwhichthecellsoftheanimalactuallylive.MostcellsareNOTincontactwiththeexternalenvironmentMostcellsCANNOTfunctionwithoutothercellsMostcellsareincontactwiththeinternalenvironmentTheinternalenvironmentconsistsofmaterialoutsidethecell,butinsidethebody.Homeostasis稳态Means“steadystate”orinternalorinternalbalance。Homeostasisisadynamicstate相对稳定,aninterplaybetweenoutsideforcesandinternalcontrolmechanismsAhomeostaticsystemmakesadjustmentstolessentheinternalimpactofmajorexternaldisturbances.Example:Duringexercise,sweatingincreasestomaintainaconstantinternaltemperature.FactorsaffectingHomeostasisAmountofenergy-richmolecule-fuelO2&CO2concentration-forchemicalreactionsWasteproducts-toxcicitypH-acid/basebalance,enzymaticactivityWater,salt&electrocytes-cellsizeVolume&pressureTemperature-narrowrangeHowtomaintainhomeostasisRegulators调节者：organismsareabletobuffertheimpactofexternalchangesandmaintaintheinternalenvironmentbyusingvariousbehavioralandphysiologicalmechanisms.Conformers顺应者：organismsliveinverystableenvironmentsandhavenotevolvedsuchmaintenancemechanisms.Theseorganisms’internalenvironmentcanchangewiththeexternalenvironmentbecauseinthesecasestheexternalenvironmentchangesverylittle.HowtomaintainhomeostasisAnyhomeostaticcontrolsystemhasthreefunctionalcomponents:areceptor感受器,acontrolcenter控制中心,andaneffector效应器.

FeedbackMechanisms反馈调节机制

negative负反馈

positive正反馈controlsystemthermometer(recepto