新经济思想研究所-黑人蓝领中产阶级的失败（英文）-2021.5-73正式版

TheUnmakingoftheBlackBlue-CollarMiddleClass†

WilliamLazonick,PhilipMossandJoshuaWeitz*

WorkingPaperNo.159

May20th,2021

ABSTRACT

InthedecadeaftertheCivilRightsActof1964,AfricanAmericansmadehistoricgainsinaccessingemploymentopportunitiesinraciallyintegratedworkplacesinU.S.businessfirmsandgovernmentagencies.Inthepreviousworkingpapersinthisseries,wehaveshownthatinthe1960sand1970s,BlackswithoutcollegedegreesweregainingaccesstotheAmericanmiddleclassbymovingintowell-paidunionizedjobsincapital-intensivemassproductionindustries.Atthattime,majorU.S.companiespaidtheseblue-collarworkersmiddle-classwages,offeredstableemployment,andprovidedemployeeswithhealthandretirementbenefits.OfparticularimportancetoBlackswastheopeninguptothemofunionizedsemiskilledoperativeandskilledcraftjobs,forwhichinanumberofindustries,andparticularlythoseintheautomobileandelectronicmanufacturingsectors,therewasstrongdemand.Inaddition,bytheendofthe1970s,buoyedbyaffirmativeactionandthegrowthofpublic-serviceemployment,Blackswere

TheauthorsaregratefultotheInstituteforNewEconomicThinkingforfundingthisprojectandtoThomasFergusonformanyinsightfulcomments.SamanthaGableandWynnTuckerprovidedresearchassistance.

*WilliamLazonickisemeritusprofessorofeconomics,UniversityofMassachusettsLowell,andpresidentoftheAcademic-IndustryResearchNetwork;PhilipMossisemeritusprofessorofeconomics,UniversityofMassachusettsLowell,andaresearchassociateattheAcademic-IndustryResearchNetwork;JoshuaWeitzisaPh.D.candidateinpoliticalscienceatBrownUniversityandaresearchassociateattheAcademic-IndustryResearchNetwork.

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experiencingupwardmobilitythroughemploymentingovernmentagenciesatlocal,state,andfederallevelsaswellasincivil-societyorganizations,largelyfundedbygovernment,tooperatesocialandcommunitydevelopmentprogramsaimedaturbanareaswhereBlackslived.

Bytheendofthe1970s,therewasanemergentblue-collarBlackmiddleclassintheUnitedStates.Mostoftheseworkershadnomorethanhigh-schooleducationsbuthadsufficientearningsandbenefitstoprovidetheirfamilieswitheconomicsecurity,includingrealisticexpectationsthattheirchildrenwouldhavetheopportunitytomoveuptheeconomicladdertojointheranksofthecollege-educatedwhite-collarmiddleclass.Thatiswhathadhappenedforwhitesinthepost-WorldWarIIdecades,andgiventhemomentumprovidedbythedominantpositionoftheUnitedStatesinglobalmanufacturingandthenation’sequalemploymentopportunitylegislation,therewaseveryreasontobelievethatBlackswouldexperienceintergenerationalupwardmobilityalongasimilareducation-and-employmentcareerpath.

Thatdidnothappen.Overall,the1980sand1990sweredecadesofeconomicgrowthintheUnitedStates.Fortheemergingblue-collarBlackmiddleclass,however,theexperiencewasofjobloss,economicinsecurity,anddownwardmobility.Asthetwentiethcenturyendedandthetwenty-firstcenturybegan,moreover,itbecameapparentthatthisdownwardspiralwasnotconfinedtoBlacks.Whiteswithonlyhigh-schooleducationsalsosawtheirblue-collaremploymentopportunitiesdisappear,accompaniedbylowerwages,fewerbenefits,andlesssecurityforthosewhocontinuedtofindemploymentinthesejobs.ThedistressexperiencedbywhiteAmericanswiththedeclineoftheblue-collarmiddleclassfollowsthedownwardtrajectorythathasadverselyaffectedthesocioeconomicpositionsofthemuchmorevulnerableblue-collarBlackmiddleclassfromtheearly1980s.

Inthispaper,wedocumentwhen,how,andwhytheunmakingoftheblue-collarBlackmiddleclassoccurredandintergenerationalupwardmobilityofBlackstothecollege-educatedmiddleclasswasstifled.Wefocusonblue-collarlayoffsandmanufacturing-plantclosingsinanimportantsectorforBlackemployment,theautomobileindustryfromtheearly1980s.WethendocumenttheadverseimpactonBlacksthathasoccurredingovernment-sectoremploymentinafinancializedeconomyinwhichthedominantideologyisthatconcentrationofincomeamongtherichesthouseholdspromotesproductiveinvestment,withgovernmentspendingonlyimpedingthatobjective.Reductionoftaxesprimarilyonthewealthyandthecorporatesector,theascendancyofpoliticalandeconomicbeliefsthatcelebratetheefficiencyanddynamismof“freemarket”businessenterprise,andthedenigrationoftheideathatgovernmentcansolvesocialproblemsallcombinedtoshrinkgovernmentbudgets,diminishregulatoryenforcement,andscuttleinitiativesthatpreviouslyprovidedgreateropportunityforAfricanAmericansinthegovernmentandcivil-societysectors.

/10.36687/inetwp159

JELcodes:D2,D3,G3,J0,L2,L6,N8,O3,P1

Keywords:AfricanAmerican,employmentrelations,equalemploymentopportunity,unions,blue-collar,employmentmobility,automobileindustry,governmentemployment,mass-incarcerationindustries.

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Fromupwardmobilitytodownwardmobility

InthedecadeaftertheCivilRightsActof1964,AfricanAmericansmadehistoricgainsinaccessingemploymentopportunitiesinraciallyintegratedworkplacesinU.S.businessfirmsandgovernmentagencies.Someoftheseemploymentopportunitieswereinprofessional,technical,andadministrativeoccupations,forwhichhighereducationwasarequiredqualification.Manywereinwhite-collarclericalandsalespositions,forwhichahighereducationwasnotnecessarilydemanded.Mostoftheincreasedopportunitieswereinblue-collarcraft(orskilled)andoperative(orsemiskilled)occupations,whichdemandednomorethanahigh-schooldiploma.

Inthe1970s,alargeportionoftheBlackpopulationfacedpersistentpovertyasresidentsofthe“innercities”towhichtheyortheirancestorshadmigratedfromtheruralSouthovertheprevioushalfcentury.Inthepostwardecades,however,manyBlacksfoundapathwayoutofpovertybysecuringsteadyblue-collaremploymentintheburgeoningmass-productionfactoriescharacteristicoftheera.TheconstructionoftheU.S.government-fundedinterstatehighwaysystemfromthelate1950senabledindustrialcorporationstolocatetheirproductionfacilitiesinsuburbanareas.AslargenumbersofBlackssecuredjobsinthesesuburbanplants,theyvacatedtheinnercitiesandtookupresidencecloserby.

Comingintothe1960s,Blackscontinuetofaceconsiderablediscriminationintheseworkplaces,confinedtothelowest-paidandleastdesirableunskilledjobs.Theiremploymentwasoftenmadeinsecurethroughthedenialtothemoftheseniorityrights—firsthired,lastfired—thatprotectedtheirwhitecounterparts,whodominatedthebetter-paidsemiskilledandskilledoccupations.Duringthe1960sandintothe1970s,however,underpressurefromstrongdemandformass-productionlaborandcivil-rightslegislation,theemploymentopportunitiesofblue-collarBlacksimprovedmarkedly.Particularlyinworkplacesofmajorcorporations,inwhichunionbargainingsecuredmembersstableemployment,risingrealearnings,healthcoverage,anddefined-benefitpensions,blue-collarworkers—includingrisingproportionsofBlacks—couldattainalivingstandardthatplacedthematthelowerlevelsofAmerica’sbroadanddeepmiddleclass.

Aswedocumentedinthepreviousworkingpaperofour“FiftyYearsAfter”project,inthe1970s,thelowerlevelofthatemergingBlackmiddleclassincludedmillionsofblue-collarworkers,bothmaleandfemale,inunionizedbusinessestablishments.1ThewidespreadavailabilitytoBlacksoftheseemploymentopportunities,onwhatwasapproachinganequalfootingwithwhites,createdafoundationforupwardintergenerationalsocioeconomicmobilityfromhigh-school-educatedblue-collarworkertocollege-educatedwhite-collarworker—atrajectorythatfromthe1940sthefamiliesofwhiteAmericanshadfollowedintothenation’suppermiddleclass.

Fortheproject,“FiftyYearsAfter:BlackEmploymentintheUnitedStatesUndertheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,”carriedoutbytheAcademic-IndustryResearchNetworkincollaborationwiththeInstituteforNewEconomicThinking,seeWilliamLazonick,PhilipMoss,andJoshuaWeitz,“HowtheDisappearanceofUnionizedJobsObliteratedanEmergentBlackMiddleClass,”InstituteforNewEconomicThinkingWorkingPaperNo.1255,June15,2021,at/research/research-papers/how-the-disappearance-of-unionized-jobs-obliterated-an-emergent-black-middle-class.ForasummaryoftheemploymentprogressforBlackinthe1960sand1970s,seeJoshuaWeitz,WilliamLazonick,andPhilipMoss,“EmploymentMobilityandtheBelatedEmergenceoftheBlackMiddleClass,”InstituteforNewEconomicThinkingWorkingPaperNo.143,January2,2021,pp.26-33,at/research/research-papers/employment-mobility-and-the-belated-emergence-of-the-black-middle-class.

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ThisunprecedentedupwardsocioeconomicmobilityforBlacksinthedecadeaftertheCivilRightsActof1964isthecoreobservationthatanimatestheanalysisofWilliamJuliusWilsoninhisbook,TheDecliningSignificanceofRace:BlacksandChangingAmericanInstitutions,firstpublishedin1978.Wilsoncontendsthattheracialintegrationofthenation’smajorplacesofemploymentinthe1960sandfirsthalfofthe1970sdramaticallyreducedtheimportanceofraceindeterminingsocioeconomicstatusintheUnitedStates.2Thedriversofthisprogressinracerelationswerethecivilrightsmovement,symbolizedbythecreationin1965oftheU.S.EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC),andastrongdemandforsemiskilledandskilledlaborinthenation’smass-productionindustries.The1960swasalsoadecadeinwhichimmigrationtotheUnitedStateswasatarecordlow.MillionsofAfricanAmericanswithnomorethanhigh-schooleducationswereabletosecureunionizedblue-collaremploymentwithgoodwagesandbenefitsatthemajormass-producingcorporations.

Atthesametime,theoffspringofmanywhiteblue-collarworkersweretakingadvantageofrelativelyinexpensivehighereducation,especiallyinthepublic-universitysystem,tomaketheintergenerationaltransitiontocollege-educatedwhite-collaremploymentopportunities.IncreasingnumbersofAfricanAmericanswerealsobecomingcollegeeducated,andoccupationsandworkplacesthatrequiredhighereducationwerebecomingmoreintegrated.But,giventhehistoryofemploymentsegregationanddiscriminationthatBlackshadexperiencedsincetheendofslaveryacenturyearlier,themostimportantsocioeconomicprogressthatAfricanAmericansattainedinthedecadeaftertheCivilRightsActof1964wasbymeansofexpandedemploymentasblue-collarworkers.

Inabook,TheNewBlackMiddleClass,publishedin1987,BartLandry,likeWilson,seestheremarkableeconomicprogressofBlacksinthe1960sasapotentialfoundationforsustainedupwardsocioeconomicmobilityforAfricanAmericans.3Landryarguesthat,unliketheoldBlackmiddleclass,whichwascreatedwithinlargelysegregatedAfricanAmericancommunities,thenewBlackmiddleclassemergedwithinanincreasinglyintegratedsociety.Herecognizesthat,previously,amajorconstraintonupwardintergenerationalsocioeconomicmobilityfortheBlackmiddle-classfamilywas“[t]heinabilitytopassonitspositiontoitsoffspringthatcharacterizedtheoldblackmiddleclass.”Heobservesthat,in1962,only1in10Blackmiddle-classmalescamefromthemiddle-classfamilies,comparedto4in10ofwhites.4“Bycontrast,”Landryargues,“thenewblackmiddleclasswasonewithgreatlyenhancedopportunities,givingnewmeaningtomiddle-classoriginsforblacks.”5

LandrypositsthatthesocioeconomicsegregationofAfricanAmericans“mighthavecontinuedindefinitelyhaditnotbeenforthedevelopmentoftwosimultaneousandpowerfulforceswithinAmericansociety:prosperityandthecivilrightsmovement.Thechancesimultaneousoccurrenceofthesetwofactorscreatedthenecessaryconditionsfortheemergenceofanewblackmiddleclass.”6Ashereiteratesthebasicproposition:“Theuniquenessofthe1960slayinthefactthat

WilliamJuliusWilson,TheDecliningSignificanceofRace:BlacksandChangingAmericanInstitutions,UniversityofChicagoPress,1978.

BartLandry,TheNewBlackMiddleClass,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1987.

Ibid.,p.88.

Ibid.,p.87.

Ibid.,p.70(emphasisinoriginal).

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prosperityandthecivilrightsmovement,culminatinginequalemploymentopportunitylaws,coincided.Thiswasnotthecaseinthe1950sorthe1970s.”7

Fromthisperspective,bothLandryandWilsonrecognizetheprecariousnessoftheupwardsocioeconomicmobilitythatAfricanAmericanshadachievedbythe1970s.Landry,whosebookwaspublishedalmostadecadelaterthanWilson’sTheDecliningSignificanceofRace,witnessesthatvulnerabilityplayoutinthedouble-diprecessionsof1980-1982,which“dashedtheoptimismfeltin1976byblackandwhitealike….Inthesoberingpostrecessionclimateofthemid-1980s,

thereislittletalkaboutreachingthebestimaginablelifeinthenextfiveyears.”8Bythemid-1980s,Blackshadleftthe“fastlane”ofupwardmobilitytofindthemselves“caughtupinaneconomictrafficjaminstead.”9TheconclusiontoLandry’sbookisdecidedlypessimistic:

Theschismintheeconomybetweenthewhite-collarservicesectorandtheblue-collarproductiveandunskilledservicesectorsisdeepandstructural.Growthatthemiddle-classlevelnolongerimpliesacorrespondingdeclineinthenumberofunskilledworkersandunderclassindividuals.Theemergenceoftheblackmiddleclass,then,isahopefulsigninthehistoryofblacksinAmerica.Itisnotasignthatalliswell.10

InTheDecliningSignificanceofRace,WilsonarguesthatthemarkedprogressintheupwardsocioeconomicmobilityofAfricanAmericansinthe1960swastheresultof

theshiftsintheeconomyleadingtoasegmentedlaborstructurehaveresultedinblackseitherbeingisolatedinthelow-wagelabormarketandbeingconcentratedinnonunionized,low-paying,basicallyundesirablejobsthatnobodyreallywantsorreadilyaccepts,orbeingpartofthehigher-payingcorporateandgovernmentindustrylabormarketandthusbeingprotectedbypowerfulunionswhicheffectivelycontroljobcompetitionorhaverigorousprerequisitesthateliminatethepoorlytrainedandeducatedregardlessofrace.11

Giventhislabor-marketsegmentation,Wilson,observingtrendsintheearly1970s,isnotsanguineaboutthecontinuedmovementofpoorBlacksoutoftheinnercities.Asheputsit:

Althoughthechangesintheblackoccupationalstructuresince1940quiteclearlyshowaconsistentpatternofjobupgrading,therearefirmindications,asIhaveemphasized,thatintheperiodofmodernindustrialization,thechancesofcontinuedeconomicimprovementfortheblackpoorarerapidlydecreasing….[T]heeffectsoftheadvancedindustrial,segmentedlabormarketcan

begaugedbyexaminingtherapidincreaseintheeducationallevelofworkersinthelower-payingoccupations(unskilledlaborers,serviceworkers,semiskilledoperatives)inwhichblacksareheavilyconcentrated.Thismeansthatpersonswithonlyahighschooleducationorlessmaybeincreasinglyconsignedtothemost

Ibid.,p.73.

Ibid.p.230.

Ibid.,p.233.

Ibid.

Wilson,TheDecliningSignificanceofRace,p.110.

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inferiorjobs.Thereisalreadyanindicationthatthemovementofblacksoutoflower-payingtohigher-payingjobshasslowedconsiderablyinthe1970s…[T]herateofblackoccupationalupgradingfrom1970to1974isconsiderablybelowthatof1964to1970.12

Wilsonnotesthedisturbingfactsthat“femaleheadsofpoorblackhouseholdsincreasedfrom56percentin1970to67percentin1974,and75percentofpoorblackfemale-headedfamiliesreceivedsomeoralloftheirincomefrompublicassistancein1973.13

InWhenWorkDisappears:TheWorldoftheNewUrbanPoor,publishedin1996,WilsonanalyzestheactualunfoldingofthepessimisticprognosisforBlackupwardmobilitythathehadperceivedtwodecadesearlier.14Helaystheblameonthedisappearanceofblue-collaremploymentopportunitiesinunionizedmass-productionjobsthathadenabledhigh-school-educatedBlackstoclimbtothelowerrungsoftheAmericanmiddleclass.“Ofthechangesintheeconomythathaveadverselyaffectedlow-skilledAfrican-Americanworkers,”Wilsonargues,“perhapsthemostsignificanthavebeenthoseinthemanufacturingsector.”15Heobservesthat“[e]venthelow-skilledworkerswhoareconsistentlyemployedfaceproblemsofeconomicadvancement.Jobladders—opportunitiesforpromotionwithinfirms—haveeroded,andmanyless-skilledworkersstagnateindead-end,low-payingpositions.”16

InthedecliningU.S.mass-productionsystem,Wilsoncontinues,“plentyofblue-collarjobswereavailabletoworkerswithlittleformaleducation.Today,mostofthenewjobsofworkerswithlimitededucationandexperienceareintheservicesector,whichhiresrelativelymorewomen.”17Thedropinunionizationratestranslatesinto“shrinkingwagesandnonwagecompensationforlessskilledworkers.”18WilsoncitesdatathatshowadramaticfallintheproportionofemployedBlackmalesages20-29workinginmanufacturingindustriesfromabout38percentin1973to20percentin1987,whilethoseofthisdemographicgroupworkingintheretailtradeandservicejobs,inwhichannualearningswere25-30percentlessthaninmanufacturing,rosefrom17percentto27percentand10percentto21percent,respectively,overthese14years.

Inthispaper,weanalyzethistransitionfromupwardtodownwardsocioeconomicmobilityforhigh-school-educatedAfricanAmericansfromthe1980s.Inthepreviouspapersinthisseries,wehaveshownthatinthe1960sand1970s,BlackswithoutcollegedegreesweregainingaccesstotheAmericanmiddleclassbymovingintowell-paidunionizedjobsincapital-intensivemassproductionindustries.Atthattime,majorU.S.companiespaidtheseblue-collarworkersmiddle-classwages,offeredstableemployment,andprovidedemployeeswithhealthandretirementbenefits.OfparticularimportancetoBlackswastheopeninguptothemofunionizedsemiskilledoperativeandskilledcraftjobs,forwhichinanumberofindustries,andparticularlythoseintheautomobileandelectronicmanufacturingsectors,therewasstrongdemand.Whiletotalemploymentinthesteelsectorhadbeendecliningfromthe1960s,inthe1970sitwasstillasource

Ibid.,pp.129-130.

Ibid,pp.130,132.

WilliamJuliusWilson,WhenWorkDisappears:TheWorldoftheNewUrbanPoor,AlfredA,Knopf,1996.Seeespecially

Chapter2:SocietalChangesandVulnerableNeighborhoods.

Ibid,p.29.

Ibid,p.25.

Ibid.,pp.26-27.

Ibid.,p.28.

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ofwell-paidunionizedblue-collarjobstowhichBlacksincreasinglyhadaccess.Inaddition,andofconsiderableimportance,bytheendofthe1970s,buoyedbyaffirmativeactionandthegrowthofpublic-serviceemployment,Blackswereexperiencingupwardmobilitythroughemploymentingovernmentagenciesatlocal,state,andfederallevelsaswellasincivil-societyorganizations,largelyfundedbygovernment,tooperatesocialandcommunitydevelopmentprogramsaimedaturbanareaswhereBlackslived.

Asaresult,bytheendofthe1970s,therewasanemergentblue-collarBlackmiddleclassintheUnitedStates.Mostoftheseworkershadnomorethanhigh-schooleducationsbuthadsufficientearningsandbenefitstoprovidetheirfamilieswitheconomicsecurity,includingrealisticexpectationsthatoverthecomingdecadestheirchildrenwouldhavetheopportunitytomoveuptheeconomicladdertojointheranksofthecollege-educatedwhite-collarmiddleclass.Thatiswhathadhappenedforwhitesinthepost-WorldWarIIdecades,andgiventhemomentumprovidedbythedominantpositionoftheUnitedStatesinglobalmanufacturingandthenation’sequalemploymentopportunitylegislation,therewaseveryreasontobelievethatBlackswouldnowexperienceintergenerationalupwardmobilityalongasimilareducation-and-employmentcareerpath.

Thatdidnothappen.Overall,the1980sand1990sweredecadesofeconomicgrowthintheUnitedStates.Fortheemergingblue-collarBlackmiddleclass,however,theexperiencewasjobloss,economicinsecurity,anddownwardmobility.Asthetwentiethcenturyendedandthetwenty-firstcenturybegan,moreover,itbecameapparentthatthisdownwardspiralwasnotconfinedtoBlacks.Whiteswithonlyhigh-schooleducationsalsosawtheirblue-collaremploymentopportunitiesdisappear,accompaniedbylowerwages,fewerbenefits,andlesssecurityforthosewhocontinuedtofindemploymentinthesejobs.19ThedistressexperiencedbywhiteAmericanswiththedeclineoftheblue-collarmiddleclassfollowsthedownwardtrajectorythathasadverselyaffectedthesocioeconomicpositionsofthemuchmorevulnerableblue-collarBlackmiddleclassfromtheearly1980s.

Inthispaper,wedocumentwhen,how,andwhytheunmakingoftheblue-collarBlackmiddleclassoccurredandintergenerationalupwardmobilityofBlackstothecollege-educatedmiddleclasswasstifled.Wefocusonblue-collarlayoffsandmanufacturing-plantclosingsin,asanimportantsectorforBlackemployment,theautomobileindustryfromtheearly1980s.WethendocumenttheadverseimpactonBlacksthathasoccurredingovernment-sectoremploymentinafinancializedeconomyinwhichthedominantideologyisthatconcentrationofincomeamongtherichesthouseholdspromotesproductiveinvestment,withgovernmentspendingonlyimpedingthatobjective.Reductionoftaxesprimarilyonthewealthyandthecorporatesector,theascendancyofpoliticalandeconomicbeliefsthatcelebratetheefficiencyanddynamismof“freemarket”businessenterprise,andthedenigrationoftheideathatgovernmentcansolvesocialproblemsall

BrianC.ThiedeandShannonM.Monnat,“TheGreatRecessionandAmerica’sGeographyofUnemployment,”DemographicResearch,30,Article35,2016:891-928;SusanB.GlasserandGlennThrush,“What’sgoingonwithAmerica’swhitepeople?”Politico,September/October2016,at/magazine/story/2016/09/problems-white-people-america-society-class-race-214227;BrianAlexander,GlassHouse:The1%EconomyandtheShatteringoftheAll-AmericanTown,St.Martin’sPress,2017;AnneCaseandAngusDeaton,“MortalityandMorbidityinthe21stCentury,”and“CommentsandDiscussion,”BrookingsPapersonEconomicActivity,Spring2017:397-476;RajChetty,DavidGrusky,MaximilianHell,NathanialHendren,RobertManduca,andJimmyNarang,“TheFadingAmericanDream:TrendsinAbsoluteIncomeMobilitysince1940,”Science,356,6336,2017:398–406;WilliamLazonick,“BookreviewofGlassHouse:the1%andtheShatteringoftheAll-AmericanTown,”IndustrialandLaborRelationsReview,70,5,2017:1285-1287.

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combinedtoshrinkgovernmentbudgets,diminishregulatoryenforcement,andscuttleinitiativesthatpreviouslyprovidedgreateropportunityforAfricanAmericansinthegovernmentandcivil-societysectors.

EmploymentandearningsofBlacksinthe1960sand1970s

AsapreludetoouranalysisoftheunmakingoftheBlackblue-collarmiddleclassfromthe1980s,letusreviewtheemploymentandearningsprogressthatAfricanAmericansmadeinvariousbroadoccupationalcategoriesinthe1960sand1970s.TheelevenoccupationalcategoriesinTableIV.1areranked,generally,fromtoptobottomby,indescendingorder,byeducationalrequirementsandearningspotential.Inthemiddleisthe“Operatives,includingTransport”category,whichhasbyfarthemostBlacksemployedin1970.

Thequalityoftheseoperativepositions,intermsofemploymentsecurity,jobladders,wagelevels,andtypesofbenefits,variedsignificantlybyindustryvalue-added,companyproductivity,andin-houseemploymentrelations.AsshowninthedatainTableIV.2onmedianannualearningsbybroadoccupationalcategoryin1969forfamilyheadsintheU.S.laborforce(includingallraces),operativepaywassignificantlyhigherthanlaborerpay,especiallyinthe25-34and55-64agebrackets.Dependingonthedistributionofoperativeearningsaroundthemedian,theemploymentcircumstancesofanygivenoperativemighthaveprovidedannualearningshighenoughfor“middleclass”status.Alternatively,aparticularoperativejobmayhaveentailedmuchlowerannualearnings,typicalofthe“workingclass.”

Ofcourse,theclasslabelsareunimportantexceptinsofarastheysignifydifferentlevelsofemploymentsecurity(e.g.,union-protectedseniority),careeropportunity(e.g.,thepossibilityfortransitioningfromasemiskilledoperativejobtoaskilledcraftjob),andearningspotential(e.g.,thedifferencebetweenbeinganoperativeinalow-productivitygarmentfactoryorahigh-productivityautomobilefactory).Thekeypointisthat,underpropitiousconditions,employmentasasemiskilledoperativecirca1970offeredagoodstandardoflivingtoamemberoftheU.S.laborforce.Blackswerefarmorelikelytobenefitfromthosepropitiousconditionsattheendofthe1960sthanhadbeenthecaseadecadeearlier.

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TableIV.1:BlacksintheU.S.laborforcebyoccupationalcategory,1960-2019

NumberofBlacksinOccupationalCategory(000s)

Occupation

1960

1970

1980

1989

2000

2010

2019

TotalBlackemployment

6,941

8,445

10,890

11,958

15,313

15,532

19,381

ManagersandAdministrators

180

296

566

846

1,503

2,105

2,266

ProfessionalandTechnical

332

768

1,383

1,373

2,328

2,834

3,910

Sales

104

177

316

900

1,438

1,508

1,745

Clerical

506

1,115

2,004

2,099

2,564

2,256

2,579

Craft

416

692

1,045

1,092

1,191

821

1,047

Operatives,includingTransport

1,413

2,001

2,113

1,918

1,993

2,254

3,148

Nonfarmlaboresr

949

870

751

802

833

725

104

Privatehousehold

984

650

348

219

118

660

856

Service,exceptPrivatehousehold

1,212

1,545

2,167

2,518

3,186

2,365

3,653

FarmersandFarmmanagers

222

84

33

10

10

1

1

Farmlaboreraandsupervisors

623

245

163

182

150

4

43

Blacks

asaPercentageofOccupationalCategory

Occupation

1960

1970

1980

1989

2000

2010

2019

Blacksas%ofallemployees

10.5

10.7

11.2

9.3

10.2

9.4

12.3

ManagersandAdministrators

2.6

3.6

5.2

5.7

7.6

8.1

8.4

ProfessionalandTechnical

4.5

6.9

8.9

7.2

9.1

9.