批判性推理基础学习CriticalReasoningforbeginners全记录文本

.CriticalReasoningforbeginnersbyMarianneTalbotOxfordLesson1 HowtorecognizeargumentsandWhat谢谢阅读isthenatureofarguments谢谢阅读Argumentsareasetofsentencessuchthatoneofthem(theconclusion)isbeingsaidtobetrue,andtheother(s)(thepremises)arebeingofferedasreasonsforbelievingthetruthoftheone.感谢阅读Anargumentisn'tasetofcontradictions.谢谢阅读Partofthepointofanargumentistomoveusonfromwherewearetosomewhereabitfurther.谢谢阅读Argumentsleadtodeeperthoughts.(fromwherewearetowherewewant)谢谢阅读AnArgument:(oneormore)Premises[toprove---reasons]

Conclusion[supposetrue]

(Function)relationshipamongsentences精品文档放心下载e.g.It'sFriday.MariannealwayswearsjeansonFriday.谢谢阅读ThereforeMariannewillwearjeanstoday.感谢阅读Playattentiontosuppressedpremises（隐藏前提）.谢谢阅读context——allsentencesmaybeargument.感谢阅读implication（实质蕴涵）entailment（逻辑蕴涵）Distinguishargumentsfrom感谢阅读setsofsentencesnotrelatedasarguments精品文档放心下载aren'trelatedatalle.g.Theseaissalt.SydneyisinAustralia.(2)relatedbutnotanargument感谢阅读e.g.Towardslunchtimecloudsformedandtheskyblackened.Thenthestormbroke.精品文档放心下载(b)sentences(assertions) 'if...then...'精品文档放心下载e.g.Ifitissnowing,themailwillbelate..(implicationnotentailment)Anargumentisasetofsentences,oneofwhichisbeingasserted.感谢阅读Anassertionisasinglesentence(possiblycomplex),thatisbeingexpressedinassertivemode.谢谢阅读'because'maybecausalorrational.感谢阅读reasonandcausecausalrelations（因果关系）andrationalrelations（推理关系）谢谢阅读AandBentailCdoesn'tmeanAandBcauseC.谢谢阅读e.g.It'sFriday.(A)MariannealwayswearsjeansonFriday.(B)谢谢阅读ThereforeMariannewillwearjeanstoday.(C)谢谢阅读explanation:(1)causalexplanation（因果性解释）:谢谢阅读e.g.Pawlfelldownbecausehewantedtoamusechildren.感谢阅读(2)rationalexplanation（推理性解释）:谢谢阅读e.g.PawlfelldownbecauseJellypushedhim.谢谢阅读Factsarewhatmakessentencestrueorfalse.Theyarenottrueorfalse,theyjustexistordon'texist.精品文档放心下载Onlybeliefsorsentencesthatexpressbeliefsaretrueorfalse.精品文档放心下载Belief (e.g.concept)..............theconcept'chair'谢谢阅读Language..................................thelanguage'c-h-a-i-r'感谢阅读Reality.......................................theobject'chair'精品文档放心下载Argumentscanonlybegoodorbad,theycanonlybevalidorinvalid,theycan'tbetrueorfalsebecausetheonlythingthatcanbetrueorfalseisbeliefsorthesentencesthatexpressbeliefs.精品文档放心下载Agoodargumentisoneinwhich:精品文档放心下载(1)theconclusionmustfollowthepremises感谢阅读(2)thepremisesmustallbetrue.谢谢阅读Theconclusionmustbetrue.(truthpreserving)精品文档放心下载逻辑学并不关心前提正确与否，而只关心前提与结论的关系。感谢阅读Lesson2 Differentsortsofarguments感谢阅读twobasictypesofarguments:deductionandinduction谢谢阅读Deductiveargument:.thetruthoftheirpremisesguaranteesthetruthoftheirconclusion.谢谢阅读e.g.It'sFriday.MariannealwayswearsjeansonFriday.感谢阅读ThereforeMariannewillwearjeanstoday.精品文档放心下载Ifthepremisesaretrue,theconclusionwouldbetrue.感谢阅读'truthguaranteeing' 'truthpreserving'精品文档放心下载Deductionisan'eitheror'thing:谢谢阅读agooddeductiveargumentgivesusconditionalcertainty.谢谢阅读abadonetellsusnothing.感谢阅读Inductiveargumentsaresuchthatthetruthoftheirpremisesmakestheconclusionmoreorlessprobable.(don'tguarantee)Inductiveargumentscanbeeitherweakorstrong.感谢阅读[strong]:Thesunhasriseneverydayinthehistoryoftheuniverse.Thereforethesunwillrisetomorrow.谢谢阅读[weak]:EverytimeImetMary,sheworeanecklace.谢谢阅读ThereforethenexttimeImeether,shewillwearanecklace.谢谢阅读逻辑学是中立性的，逻辑的形式可以适用于任何的内容。Logiciansstudydeductionbystudyingvalidargumentsforms精品文档放心下载Argumentsthatarevalidisinvirtueoftheirformsasopposedtotheircontents.谢谢阅读theformsofdeduction:1、ModusPonens肯定前件取拒式IfPthenQ,P,thereforeQ. (P,Qsentences)精品文档放心下载wrong:IfPthenQ,Q,thereforeP.感谢阅读(Affirmingconsequent肯定后件式)精品文档放心下载2、Modustollens否定后件式IfPthenQ,not-Q,thereforenot-P.精品文档放心下载3、Disjunctivesyllogism选言三段论感谢阅读PorQ,not-P,thereforeQ.感谢阅读（P或Q成立，P不成立，因此Q成立）4、Leibniz'sLaw莱布尼兹律（相同者不可辨识）精品文档放心下载aisF,a=b,thereforebisF.谢谢阅读e.g.Janeis(predication)tall.感谢阅读Janeis(identity)thebankmanager.谢谢阅读Thereforethebankmanageris(predication)tall.感谢阅读Note:'is'canserveasapredication（论断）oridentity（同等）.谢谢阅读The'is'saboveserveaspredications.感谢阅读Andthe'='aboveservesasidentity.谢谢阅读inductiveargumentstherearemanydifferentsub-types:精品文档放心下载.5、Syllogism三段论allFsareG.aisanF.ThereforeaisaG.6、DeonticLogic道义逻辑e.g.Lyingiswrong.Thereforeweshouldn'tlie.谢谢阅读7、ModalLogic模态逻辑（alogicaboutnecessityandpossibility)谢谢阅读e.g.Itisnecessarilythecasethattherearenosquarecircles.精品文档放心下载Thereforeitisnotpossiblethattherearesquarecircles.感谢阅读8、TemporalLogic时序逻辑（时态逻辑）精品文档放心下载e.g.Itisrainingtoday.Thereforetomorrowitwillhavebeenrainingyesterday.感谢阅读InductiveargumentsAllinductiveargumentsrelyontheassumptionoftheuniformityofnature(theideathatthefuturewillbelikethepast)感谢阅读哲学中的一个基本问题是，我们对未来的假设，会不会和过去的经验相一致？精品文档放心下载Uniformity一致性，uniformityofnature(DavidHume)自然界是否具有一致性？谢谢阅读Withinthecategoryof1、argumentsfromanalogy类比推理感谢阅读aislikeb,aisF,thereforebisF.谢谢阅读（小写字母：particularthing特定的事物精品文档放心下载大写字母：性质或句子）2、argumentsfromauthority诉诸权威的论证e.g.Einsteinisabrilliantphysicist.Einsteinsaysrelativismistrue.精品文档放心下载Thereforerelativismistrue.精品文档放心下载Causalarguments因果论证Causalargumentscanbedeductiveorinductive,dependingonwhetherwearearguingfromacausalclaimortoacausalclaim.谢谢阅读deductive:AscauseBs.TherewasanA.ThereforetherewillhavebeenaB.谢谢阅读inductive:EveryobservedAhasbeenfollowedbyaB.谢谢阅读ThereforeAscauseBs..negativeexistential否定存在判断句精品文档放心下载e.g.飞马不存在。Wecanknowthatargumentsthataredeductivelyvalid感谢阅读——invirtueoftheirforms谢谢阅读——invirtueoftheircontent谢谢阅读e.g. DeonticLogic,TemporalLogic感谢阅读argumentsthatareinductivelyvalid感谢阅读——theuniformityofnature精品文档放心下载Lesson3 'logic-book-style'逻辑书感谢阅读thepoint:(a)itenablesustoaddsuppressedpremises隐含前提谢谢阅读(b)itenablesustoeliminatecrossreferences,irrelevanciesandinconsistentterms排除交叉引用、无关和不一致词语谢谢阅读(c)itmakesiteasiertoevaluatearguments.精品文档放心下载Asetofstepsforanalyzingarguments:谢谢阅读1.identifytheconclusionoftheargument精品文档放心下载Lookfortheargumentindicators(so,therefore,then,if...then...,accordingly,hence,since,for,because,fromwhichweseethat,itfollowsthat,whichestablishesthat...)感谢阅读identifyeachofthepremises感谢阅读addsuppressedpremisesremoveirrelevanciesremoveinconsistenttermsremovecross-referencesExample1:Socialismdidnotprovidetheincentivesneedforaprosperouseconomy.精品文档放心下载Thereforesocialismwasdoomedtofailure.精品文档放心下载Premise1:Incentivesareneededforaprosperouseconomy.精品文档放心下载Premise2:Socialismdidnotprovideincentives.谢谢阅读Conclusion:Socialismwasdoomedtofailure.谢谢阅读Premisesandconclusionmustbesentences.感谢阅读P,unlessQ.IfQ,thenR. PButnotR.Example2:.Sincemanynewlyemergingnationsdonothavethecapitalresourcesnecessary感谢阅读Premise1:Manynewlyemergingnationsdonothavecapitalresources感谢阅读Premise2:Capitalresourcesarenecessaryforsustainedgrowth.精品文档放心下载Premise3:Ifanewlyemergingnationistosustainitsgrowth,anditdoesnothavecapitalresources,itwillneedhelpfromindustrialnations.感谢阅读Conclusion:Manynewlyemergingnationswillneedhelpfromindustrialnations.精品文档放心下载Example3:Wellperhapsshedidn'twantyoutoticklehertummy,orshedidn'trealizethatwaswhatyouweregoingtodo.Ifshedidn'trealize,thenyouobviouslywentaboutitinthewrongway.Inthatcaseyoudeservedtogetscratchedunlessyoureadythoughtshewassuchaperceptivecatthatshe'dunderstand'woof-woof'meant'rollover'.Ifyouthoughtthatyou'reanidiot.Butyou'renotanidiotyou'rejusttwisted.Soifthepoorthingdidwantyoutoticklehertummyyoudeservetogetscratched.感谢阅读1 Identifypremisesandconclusion谢谢阅读Premise1:Wellperhapsshedidn'twantyoutoticklehertummy,orshedidn'trealizethatwaswhatyouweregoingtodo精品文档放心下载Premise2:Ifshedidn'trealize,thenyouobviouslywentaboutitinthewrongway.谢谢阅读Premise3:Inthatcaseyoudeservedtogetscratchedunlessyoureadythoughtshewassuchaperceptivecatthatshe'dunderstand'woof-woof'meant'rollover'.谢谢阅读Premise4:Ifyouthoughtthat,you'reanidiot.Butyou'renotanidiotyou'rejusttwisted.谢谢阅读Conclusion:Soifthepoorthingdidwantyoutoticklehertummyyoudeservetogetscratched.谢谢阅读2 Addsuppressedpremises(None)3 Removeirrelevanciesdraft:Premise1:Wellperhapsshedidn'twantyoutoticklehertummy,orshedidn'trealizethatwaswhatyouweregoingtodo谢谢阅读Premise2:Ifshedidn'trealize,thenyouobviouslywentaboutitinthewrongway.谢谢阅读Premise3:Inthatcaseyoudeservedtogetscratchedunlessyoureadythoughtshewassuchaperceptivecatthatshe'dunderstand'woof-woof'meant'rollover'.精品文档放心下载Premise4:Ifyouthoughtthat,you'reanidiot.Butyou'renotanidiotyou'rejusttwisted.感谢阅读Conclusion:Soifthepoorthingdidwantyoutoticklehertummyyoudeserveto感谢阅读.getscratched.Premise1:Shedidn'twantyoutotickleher,orshedidn'trealizethatwaswhatyouweregoingtodo感谢阅读Premise2:Ifshedidn'trealize,thenyouwentaboutitinthewrongway.谢谢阅读Premise3:Inthatcaseyoudeservedtogetscratched.精品文档放心下载Conclusion:Soifthepoorthingdidwantyoutotickleheryoudeservetogetscratched.谢谢阅读4 Removeinconsistenttermsandcrossreferences (simplify)精品文档放心下载Premise1:Shedidn'twantyoutotickleher,orshedidn'trealizeyouweregoingtotickleher感谢阅读Premise2:Ifshedidn'trealizeyouweregoingtotickleher,thenyouweregoingtotickleherinthewrongway.感谢阅读Premise3:Ifyouweregoingtotickleherinthewrongway,youdeservedtogetscratched.感谢阅读Conclusion:Soifshedidwantyoutotickleher,youdeservetogetscratched.精品文档放心下载Toshowyouhoweasyitistorevealthestructureofthisargument,let'sformalizeit.感谢阅读Premise1:Shedidn'twantyoutotickleher,orshedidn'trealizeyouweregoingtotickleher精品文档放心下载Premise2:Ifshedidn'trealizeyouweregoingtotickleher,thenyouweregoingtotickleherinthewrongway.感谢阅读Premise3:Ifyouweregoingtotickleherinthewrongway,youdeservedtogetscratched.精品文档放心下载Conclusion:Soifshedidwantyoutotickleher,youdeservetogetscratched.谢谢阅读interpreter:'shedidn'twantyoutotickleher'isP.精品文档放心下载'shedidn'trealizeyouweregoingtotickleher'isQ.精品文档放心下载'youweregoingtotickleherinthewrongway'isR.谢谢阅读'youdeservedtogetscratched'isS.精品文档放心下载Premise1:PorQ.Premise2:ifQthenR.Premise3:ifRthenS.Conclusion:ifnot-PthenS.精品文档放心下载Note:youcanapplythismethodologytoyourownargument,thiswillhelpyouunderstandexactlywhatyouaresayingandwhyyouaresayingit.谢谢阅读Wesawthatalthoughweneedtoparaphraseargumentsinordertocompletethesesteps,weshouldnotchangethemeaningofanyofthe谢谢阅读premisesortheconclusion. .感谢阅读Lesson4 Howtoevaluatewhetheranargument感谢阅读isagoodoneorabadone感谢阅读Allinductiveargumentsrelyontheprincipleoftheuniformityofnatureandtheonlyargumentsfortheprincipleoftheuniformityofnaturearethemselvesinductive.精品文档放心下载Typesofinductiveargument:inductivegeneralizations归纳性的概括causalgeneralizations偶然的概括argumentsfromanalogy从类推得到的论点argumentsfromauthority从权威得到的论点感谢阅读Inductivegeneralizations：精品文档放心下载Thepremisesidentifiesacharacteristicofasampleofapopulationandtheconclusionextrapolatesthatcharacteristictotherestofthepopulation.精品文档放心下载Evaluatinginductivegeneralizations谢谢阅读1.Isthepremisestrue?2.Howlargeisthesample?精品文档放心下载3.Howrepresentativeisthesample?谢谢阅读4.Beware'informal'heuristics当心非正式的启发式方法------awayofmakinga感谢阅读decision5.Isthereacounterexample反例?精品文档放心下载Causalgeneralizations：Thepremiseidentifiesacorrelationbetweentwotypesofevent,theconclusionstatesthattheeventsofthefirsttypecauseeventsofsecondtype.感谢阅读Evaluatingcausalgeneralizations因果归纳感谢阅读1.Isthepremisetrue?Allweeverseeiscorrelation（相互关系）.Weneverseethecausalrelationshipitself.精品文档放心下载2.Howstrongisthecorrelation?(sample......)感谢阅读3.Doesthecausalrelationmakesense（有意义）orcoulditbeaccidental?精品文档放心下载4.Whatcausewhat?5.Isthereacounterexample反例?精品文档放心下载休谟认为，Allweseearecorrelation,weneverseeandgettothecausalrelationshipitself更进一步认为因果关系实际上根本不存在，只是人的习惯性思维。谢谢阅读.ArgumentsfromanalogyArgumentsfromanalogytakejustoneexampleofsomethingandextrapolatefromacharacterofthatexampletothecharacterofsomethingsimilartothatthing.谢谢阅读Evaluatingargumentsfromanalogy精品文档放心下载1.Arethetwothingssimilar?精品文档放心下载2.Aretheysimilarinrespectof（关于、涉及）somethingrelevant?谢谢阅读3.CanwefindaDisanalogy（不相似点---相似并非等同?）精品文档放心下载ArgumentsfromauthorityArgumentsfromauthoritytakeonepersonorgroupofpersonswhoare,orareassumedtobe,rightaboutsomethingandextrapolatetotheclaimtheyarerightaboutotherthing.精品文档放心下载Evaluatingargumentsfromauthority精品文档放心下载1.Whatexactlyisthesourceofinformation?感谢阅读2.Isthissourcequalifiedintheappropriatearea?精品文档放心下载3.Isthissourceimpartial（公平公正的）inrespectofthisclaim?感谢阅读4.Dootherexpertsmakeotherclaim?精品文档放心下载Lesson5 Validityvs.Truth(deductiveargument)精品文档放心下载AgooddeductiveargumentisSOUND（可靠的）ifandonlyifit:感谢阅读isvalidhastruepremisesSound=validargument+Truepremises精品文档放心下载Therearemanywaysinwhichwedeterminethetruthorfalsehoodofpremisesandthesewaysdonotfallintothescopeofaclassoncriticalreasoning.谢谢阅读Validity,ontheotherhandisverymuchofinteresttologiciansbecausevaliditypreservestruth.精品文档放心下载Weoftendon'tknowthetruthofourpremisesandweoftentestthetruthofourpremisesbyconstructingvalidargumentsandtestingthetruthoftheconclusion.Ifwecanshowthattheconclusionofavalidargumentisfalsewhatdowetherebydiscover?Atleastonepremiseisfalse.精品文档放心下载Hypothesis:Smokingcausescancer.感谢阅读Prediction:Ifsmokingcausescancer,theneverysmokerwillgetcancer.谢谢阅读Test:Eachsmokergetscancer.[validargument]精品文档放心下载Test(conclusion)isfalse.——PredictionorHypothesis(premise)isfalse.感谢阅读Testingofscientifichypothesis:感谢阅读Hereisthebesttheorythatphilosophersandmathematicianscancomeupwith:感谢阅读.argumentsisvalidifandonlyifthereisnopossiblesituationinwhichallits谢谢阅读Anargumentisvalidifandonlyif（当且仅当）thereisnopossiblesituationinwhichallitspremisesaretrueanditsconclusionisfalse.精品文档放心下载PossibilitynotActualityvalid——truthpreserving2+2=5.Thereforegrassisgreen.[valid---basedondefinition]（前提永假）Grassisgreen.感谢阅读Therefore2+2=4.[valid]（结论永真）paradox（悖论）——矛盾可以推出任何结论。谢谢阅读TruepremisesFalsepremisesTrueconclusionPossiblyvalidinvalidFalseconclusionPossiblyvalidPossiblyvalidVenndiagrams（韦恩图）todetermineargumentsvalidity.Possibletruthvaluesmatter谢谢阅读Premisesactuallytrueandconclusionactuallytrue精品文档放心下载Validargument Invalidargument谢谢阅读Allcatmeow. Allcatmeow.谢谢阅读Podoesnotmeow. Dogsarenotcats.精品文档放心下载Poisnotacat. Dogsdon'tmeow.谢谢阅读Premisesactuallyfalseandconclusionactuallytrue精品文档放心下载Validargument Invalidargument精品文档放心下载Allfishhavelungs Allfishhavescales.感谢阅读Whalesarefish. Whaleshavescales.感谢阅读Whaleshavelungs. Whalesarenotfish.感谢阅读Premisesactuallyfalseandconclusionactuallyfalse精品文档放心下载Validargument Invalidargument精品文档放心下载Allfishhavewings. Allfishhavescales.精品文档放心下载Whalesarefish. Whaleshavescales.谢谢阅读Whaleshavewings. Whalesarefish.精品文档放心下载Anotherwaytodeterminevalidityistocreateacounterexamplesetanddetermineconsistency谢谢阅读Ifthecounterexamplesetisconsistentthentheoriginalargumentisinvalid.如果反例集合可能同时为真，则原论证为无效的。谢谢阅读Ifthecounterexamplesetisn’tconsistentthentheoriginalargumentisvalid.如果反例集合不可能同时为真，则原论证为有效的。感谢阅读.e.g.Ifitissnowingthemailwillbelate.精品文档放心下载Themailwillbelate.Thereforeitisnotthecase（并非）itissnowing.感谢阅读Ifitissnowingthemailwillbelate.精品文档放心下载Itissnowing.Thereforeitisnotthecasethemailwillbelate.精品文档放心下载Lesson6 CommonfallaciesAFALLACYisanargumentthatlookslikeagoodargumentbutwhichisnotagoodargument.谢谢阅读Inparticularwearegoingtolookatfallaciesof:精品文档放心下载1.Fallaciesofrelevance（关联）精品文档放心下载(a)citinginsupportofaconclusionsomethingthatistruebutirrelevant精品文档放心下载Non-Sequiture.g.Billlivesinalargebuilding,thereforehisapartmentislarge.感谢阅读Everyyearmanypeoplearesupportedthroughlifebytheirreligiousbeliefs,sotheirreligiousbeliefsmustbetrue.感谢阅读Reasonforworking:Theseargumentsworkbecausepeopledon’tnoticetheirrelevance,andbecausetheyareoverly:谢谢阅读generous(theyarereluctanttopointouttheirrelevance);感谢阅读proud(theydon’twanttoadmittheycan’tseeaconnection)精品文档放心下载principleofcharity:Arguingislifebloodofcooperatingandsearchingthetruth.Ifyouwantknowthetruth,youcooperatewithotherrationalanimals.Ifyoufindthecontradiction,don’tassumeotherpersoniswrong,theonlyrationalthingtoassumeisoneofyouiswrong.Eventhatmightbefalse.谢谢阅读(b)Attackingthepersonmakingtheargumentratherthantheargumentthatis谢谢阅读madee.g.NickGriffinisleaderoftheBNP,thereforehisclaimthatsomepeopleworryaboutimmigrationisrubbish.谢谢阅读VonDaniken'sbooksaboutancientastronautsareworthlessbecauseheisaconvictedforgerandembezzler.谢谢阅读.Becarefultodistinguishadhominemattacks:attacksonsomeone’srighttosaySomething.---OK精品文档放心下载adhominemfallacies:attacksonthetruthofwhatsomeoneSays---NotOK谢谢阅读e.g.Anadhominemattack:NickGriffinisaself-professedracist,soyoushouldtakecarewhenlisteningtohis谢谢阅读claimsaboutimmigration.Anadhominemfallacy:NickGriffinisleaderoftheBNPthereforehisclaimthatsomepeopleworryaboutimmigrationisrubbish.谢谢阅读2.Fallaciesofvacuity（空虚）感谢阅读(a)citinginsupportofaconclusionthatveryconclusion(circulararguments)e.g.Allwhalesaremammals,thereforeallwhalesaremammals.精品文档放心下载InacircularargumenttheconclusionISoneofthepremises.精品文档放心下载Inaquestion-beggingargumenttheconclusionisASSUMEDbyoneofthepremises.感谢阅读Allcircularargumentsarevalid.感谢阅读oftenconvince….becausetherewillbemanypremisesotherthanthepremisethatistheconclusionsothefactthattheconclusionisamongstthepremisescangounnoticed感谢阅读Productivedisagreementalwaysbasedonagreement.Agreementonthepremises.谢谢阅读(b)citinginsupportofaconclusionapremisethatassumestheconclusion(question-begging)感谢阅读Itisalwayswrongtomurderhumanbeings感谢阅读Capitalpunishmentinvolvesmurderinghumanbeings谢谢阅读-----------------------------感谢阅读Capitalpunishmentiswrong.谢谢阅读Explainthecirclesorthequestion-beggingpremisesineachofthefollowingarguments:感谢阅读--Intoxicatingbeveragesshouldbebannedbecausetheymakepeopledrunk感谢阅读--Wehavetoacceptchangebecausewithoutchangethereisnoprogress.精品文档放心下载--Thevotingageshouldbeloweredto16because16yearoldsaremature精品文档放心下载enoughtovote..(c)offeringanargumentthatcannotbequestioned(self-sealing)感谢阅读e.g.--Twoweeksfromtodayat2.45youaregoingtobedoingexactlywhatyouaredoing.精品文档放心下载--Wemustrespectallmoralbeliefs,thereforemoralrelativismistrue.精品文档放心下载--TheglobaleconomyiscontrolledbyJews(andanyappearancetothecontraryistheresultofJewishcleverness)感谢阅读Someself-sealingargumentsmovebackandforthfrom:感谢阅读interestingbutfalseclaims:Allhumanbeingsareselfish.谢谢阅读totruebutvacuousclaims:Allhumanact