2023年胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记老师画的重点

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics

1.1Whystudylanguage?

1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.

2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.

3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguage

scientifically.

1.2Whatislanguage?

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage

Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalled

designfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromany

animalsystemofcommunication.

1.3.1Arbitrariness

1.3.2Duality

1.3.3Creativity

Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofits

dualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstothe

rulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.

Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasis

forthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.

1.3.4Displacement

1.4Originoflanguage

1.Thebow-wowtheory

Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimal

callsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdeveloped

fromthat.

2.Thepooh-poohtheory

Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutter

instinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgradually

developedintolanguage.

3.The"yo-he-ho"theory

Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsome

rhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthen

intolanguage.

1.5Functionsoflanguage

AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:

1.Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;

2.Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;

3.Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;

4.Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthrough

commandsandentreaties;

5.Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;

6.Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.

Whatiscontextualism?

aContextualismwisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecan

derivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:the

asituationalcontextwandthealinguisticcontextw.Every

utteranceoccursinaparticularspatial-temporalsituation,

asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:

(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyare

performingatthetime;(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;

(4)deicticfeatures.The“linguisticcontextwisanother

aspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofone

word,sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichforms

partofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication.

Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsof

language.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:

AccordingtoHuZhuang1in,languagehasatleastseven

functions:

1.5.1Informative

1.5.2Interpersonalfunction

Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguage

toestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.

1.5.3Performative

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilyto

changethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,

thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,the

namingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingof

enemies.

1.5.4Emotivefunction

1.5.5Phaticcommunion

Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,

seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,God

blessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortable

relationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.

1.5.6Recreationalfunction

Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthe

sheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy,sbabblingora

chanterJschanting.

1.5.7Metalingualfunction

Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguage

totalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book"totalk

aboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“theword

book“totalkaboutthesign"b-o-o-k“itself.

1.6Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudies

notjustonelanguageofanyoneconununity,butthelanguage

ofallhumanbeings.

1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1.7.1Phonetics

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemain

areas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,and

auditoryphonetics.

1.7.2Phonology

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,

distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshape

ofsyllables.

1.7.3Morphology

Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemes

andword-formationprocesses.

1.7.4Syntax

Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombined

toformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyofthe

formationofsentences.

1.7.5Semantics

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedina

language.

1.7.6Pragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

1.8Macrolinguistics

Macro1inguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,

distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththe

formalaspectoflanguagesystem.

1.8.1Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguage

andmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandin

languageacquisitionforexample.

1.8.2Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferent

interestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageand

thesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.

1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics,

Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetween

languageandcultureinacommunity.

1.8.4Computationallinguistics

Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhich

centersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehuman

language.

1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythat

thelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhich

themembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoes

notseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,of

correctness.

Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrect

useoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceand

forall.

Forexample,"Don'tsayX."isaprescriptivecommand;

aPeopledon,tsayX."isadescriptivestatement.The

distinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeand

describinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemain

Europeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,

modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenature

oflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwith

descriptioninsteadofprescription.

1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic

Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)

asitspointofobservation.Saussure,sdiachronic

descriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseof

itshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishused

inShakespeare*stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthe

changesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronic

study.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoy

priorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthe

variousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwould

bedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplacein

itshistoricaldevelopment.

1.9.3Langue&parole

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthe

speakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsas

langueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,

paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;

langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysa

naturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,

accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfused

facts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningall

instancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.

1.9.4Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledge

aboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,

andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalled

performance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceand

understandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognize

grammaticalmistakesandambiguities.AspeakerJscompetence

isstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedby

psychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformance

doesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomsky

believesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthan

performance.Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinction

isnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure,s

langue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductanda

setofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemed

asapropertyofmindofeachindividual.Saussurelooksat

languagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointof

viewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissues

psychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

2.1Speechproductionandperception

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthree

mainareas:

1.Articulatoryphonetics-thestudyoftheproduction

ofspeechsounds

2.Acousticphonetics-thestudyofthephysicalproperties

ofthesoundsproducedinspeech

3.Auditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeech

sounds

Mostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatory

phonetics.

2.2Speechorgans

Speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolved

intheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbe

consideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatorofthe

airstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.

2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription

2.3.1Segmentsanddivergences

AstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,each

lettermustrepresentmorethanonesound.

2.3.2Phonetictranscription

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbols

forrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage

accordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhonetic

Association.Thesymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.

SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,someare

specialsymbols.

2.4.2Consonants

Thecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisof

severalfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:

1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthus

thewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthe

vocaltract(mannerofarticulation);

2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,

ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).

2.4.3Mannersofarticulation

8.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthe

tongueandthesoftpalate.

2.4.5TheconsonantsofEnglish

ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandard

Englishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestige

varietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoften

beenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”oraOxford

English”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectorof

theeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBC

network.

AchartofEnglishconsonants

MannerofarticulationPlaceofarticulation

BilabialLabio­

dentalDentalAlveolarPost-

alveolarPalatalVelarGlottal

Stop

Nasal

Fricative

Approximant

Lateral

Affricate

Inmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplace

andmannerofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsare

distinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingontheleftis

voicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.

Therefore,theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthe

followingway:

[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop

[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolar

fricative

[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal

[1]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant

[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximant

2.5Vowels

2.5.1Thecriteriaofvoweldescription

1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,

center,orback.

2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionof

thepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:

high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.

3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips-variousdegreesof

liproundingorspreading.

4.Thepositionofthesoftpalate-raisedfororalvowels,

andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.

2.5.2Thetheoryofcardinalvowels

[Icywarmteadoesn'tquiteunderstandthistheory.]

Cardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarily-

defined,fixedandunchanging,intendingtoprovideaframe

ofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsof

existinglanguages.

Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsare

numberedfromonetoeightasfollows:CV1[],CV2[],

CV3[LCV4[],CV5[],CV6[],CV7[],CV8[].

Asetofsecondarycardinalvowelsisobtainedbyreversing

thelip-roundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.[Iamsorry

Icannottypeoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmay

consultthetextbookp.47.-icywarmtea]

2.5.3Vowelglides

Pure(monophthong)vowels:vowelswhichareproducedwithout

anynoticeablechangeinvowelquality.

Vowelglides:Vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeof

quality.

Diphthong:Avowelwhichisusuallyconsideredasone

distinctivevowelofaparticularlanguagebutreallyinvolves

twovowels,withonevowelglidingtotheother.

2.5.4ThevowelsofRP

[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[]

highbacklaxroundedvowel

[]centrallaxunroundedvowel

[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel

2.6Coarticulationandphonetictranscription

2.6.1Coarticulation

Coarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulation

oftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.

Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelike

thefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownas

anticipatorycoarticulation.

Perseverativecoarticulation:Ifthesounddisplaysthe

influenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,it

isperseverativecoarticulation.

Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonants

becomenasal.

Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorother

basicelements.

2.6.2Broadandnarrowtranscriptions

Theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptionis

calledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbols

toshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrow

transcription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythese

soundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherina

givenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthe

possiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesof

pronunciation.

2.7Phonologicalanalysis

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthree

mainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,and

auditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phonologystudiesthe

rulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencing

ofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafair

degreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects,so

sometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.

Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhile

phonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguage

systematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinorderto

expressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwith

thelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,with

itsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovern

thewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthe

variationsthatoccur.

2.8Phonemesandallophones

2.8.1Minimalpairs

Minimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfrom

eachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodiffer

inmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairs

astheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/

and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,a

phonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscause

differencesofmeaning.

2.8.2Thephonemetheory

2.8.3Allophones

Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcan

signaladifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsof

aphonemeiscalleditsallophones.E.g.inEnglish,whenthe

phoneme//occursatthebeginningofthewordlikepeak

//,itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itis

aspirated.Butwhen//occursinthewordlikespeak

//,itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itis

unaspirated.Boththeaspirated[]inpeakandthe

unaspirated[=]inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,

i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas//andnotas//;

theyarebothallophonesofthephoneme//.

2.9Phonologicalprocesses

2.9.1Assimilation

Assimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeor

allthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.

Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencing

aprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.

Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencing

afollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.

Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.

DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhen

theyareattheendofaword.

2.9.2Phonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrules

Thechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,and

velarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatarget

oraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertain

environmentsorcontexts.Ineachprocessthechangeis

conditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundor,inthecase

ofprogressiveassimilation,aprecedingsound.Consequently,

wecansaythatanyphonologicalprocessmusthavethree

aspectstoit:asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;aset

ofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;asetofsituationsinwhich

theprocessapplies.

Wecanrepresenttheprocessbymansofanarrow:voiced

fricative—voiceless/voiceless.Thisisa

phonologicalrule.Theslash(/)specifiestheenvironmentin

whichthechangetakesplace.Thebar(calledthefocusbar)

indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Sotherulereads:

avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorresponding

voicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.

2.9.3Ruleordering

[Nomuchtosay,soomitted-icywarmtea]

2.10Distinctivefeatures

Distinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhich

distinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefrom

anotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.

Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcan

beusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureis

eitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedto

describethesemanticpropertiesofwords.

2.11Syllables

Suprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethose

aspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.

Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,

tone,andintonation.

Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanone

soundandsmallerthanawholeword.

Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.

Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.

Maximalonsetprinciple:Theprinciplewhichstatesthat

whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,it

isputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.E.g.Thecorrect

syllabificationofthewordcountryshouldbe//.

Itshouldn,tbe//or//

accordingtothisprinciple.

Chapter3Lexicon

3.1Whatisword?

1.Whatisalexeme?

Alexemeisthesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofa

languagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.

Itisanabstractunit.Itcanoccurinmanydifferentforms

inactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthe

samelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.theword“write”is

thelexemeof“write,writes,wrote,writingandwritten.w

2.Whatisamorpheme?

Amorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsof

relationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthat

cannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithout

destroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritis

lexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword“boxes“hastwo

morphemes:"box"and"es,"neitherofwhichpermits

furtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon,twantto

sacrificeitsmeaning.

3.Whatisanallomorph?

Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.

thevariantsoftheplurality“-s"makestheallomorphs

thereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,

ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,etc.

4.Whatisaword?

Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcan

constitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechor

writing.

3.1.1Threesensesof"word"

1.Aphysicallydefinableunit

2.Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms

3.Agrammaticalunit

3.1.2Identificationofwords

1.Stability

Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespect

oftheirinternalstructure,i.e.theconstituentpartsofa

complexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,compared

withtherelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsof

sentencesinthehierarchy.Takethewordchairmanforexample.

Ifthemorphemesarerearrangedas*manchair,itisan

unacceptablewordinEnglish.

2.Relativeuninterruptibi1ity

Byuninterruptibility,wemennewelementsarenottobe

insertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsina

word.Nothingistobeinsertedinbetweenthethreepartsof

theworddisappointment:dis+appoint+ment.Norisone

allowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword:*disappoint

ment.

3.Aminimumfreeform

ThiswasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocated

treatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform“andword”the

minimumfreeform,“thelatterbeingthesmallestunitthat

canconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.

3.1.3Classificationofwords

1.Variableandinvariablewords

Invariablewords,onecanfindorderedandregularseriesof

grammaticallydifferentwordform;ontheotherhand,partof

thewordremainsrelativelyconstant.E.g.follow-follows

-following-followed.Invariablewordsrefertothosewords

suchassince,when,seldom,through,hello,etc.Theyhave

noinflectiveendings.

2.Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords

Grammaticalwords,a.k.a.functionwords,expressgrammatical

meanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,and

pronouns,aregrammaticalwords.

Lexicalwords,a.k.a.contentwords,havelexicalmeanings,

i.e.thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,such

asnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,arelexicalwords.

3.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords

Closed-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheclosed-classis

onewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenot

regularlyadded.Therefore,pronouns,prepositions,

conjunctions,articles,etc.areallcloseditems.

Open-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheopen-classisone

whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlim