写作 3.ppt

1、1,英语写作（一）：句子,一、形合与意合（hypotaxis and parataxis） 二、基本句型（ Basic Sentence Patterns ） 三、句子的种类（ Sentence Types ） 四、常见错误（Common Errors）,2,一、形合和意合的概念,众所周知，汉语和英语分属不同的语系:汉语属于汉藏语系，英语属于印欧语系。它们在发音、构词法、句法、修辞形式以及谋篇布局方面都有各自的规律和特点，两者之间虽不乏相通之处，但也存在着明显的差异。从语言学角度来看，英、汉语言之间最重要的区别莫过于形合（hypotaxis）与意合（parataxis）之分了,3,形合指句子内

2、部的连接或句子间的连接采用句法手段（syntactic devices）或词汇手段（lexical devices）。意合指“句子内部的连接或句子间的连接采用语义手段（semantic connection）” 。印欧语言重形合，语句各成分的相互结合常用适当的连接词语或各种语言连接手段，以表示其结构关系。汉语重意合，句中各成分之间或句子之间的结合多依靠语义的贯通，少用连接语，所以句法结构形式短小精悍。例如： The boy had his breakfast and went off to school. 男孩吃过早饭上学去了。,4,这里英文中“his”跟“The boy”前后照应、相互攀连，

3、“and”将两个承接的动作衔接起来，是英文形合的手段。如果翻译时过于拘泥于原文的形合语言，译文就会显得冗余累赘和拘谨：男孩吃过他的早餐，然后上学去了。在汉语里，“吃过早饭上学去”两个连贯的动作显得很紧凑。再如雪莱在西风颂中的名句：If winter comes, can spring be far behind?（冬天来了，春天还会远吗？）这里英文中的“If”就表现了从句与主句之间“假设-判断”关系，而汉语译文则没有采用任何连接词语，并不显得突兀，反而更觉一气呵成、余音绕梁。,5,形合语言注重时态变化、词形变化，注重运用“逻辑语法、连接词语”来说明句子内部、句子之间、乃至段落之间的逻辑联系；而

4、意合语言主要靠词序变化、上下文语境及言外事实逻辑来达到明晰思路的目的。比如：“你来，我就走。”，译成英语则可能是“If you come, Ill go.”或者是“When you come, Ill go”等。而操汉语的人无需依靠逻辑联系语，只要根据不同的语境就可以理解这句话的含义。 简言之,“形”是英文行文必不可少的要素，而汉语的句子铺排则以“意”为核心。,6,二、基本句型（Basic Sentence Patterns） 英语中千变万化的句子归根结底都是由以下五种基本句型组合、扩展、变化而来的：1）主语 +谓语动词（SV）。例如：I work. He studied very hard.

5、 注： S=Subject主语, V=Verb动词, O=Object宾语, P=表语, C=主语补语, Co=宾语补语 Oi=间接宾语, Od=直接宾语2）主 +谓+ 宾（SVO）例如： She studies English. He wrote an excellent essay.,7,3）主 +谓语 + 表（SVP）例如： John is busy. He is one of my students. 注意：这种句型有时也被称为主+谓+主语补语（SVC）. SVP= SVC 4）主 +谓+ 宾 + 宾补（SVOCo）例如： Time would prove me right. The

6、cold weather turned the leaves yellow.5）主 +谓+ 间宾 + 直宾（SVOiOd）例如：My mother made me a new dress. He gave the room a thorough cleaning.,8,【重点难点】英语的主谓语具有以下特点： （1）英语的主语必须是名词或相当于名词的语法成分。例如，可以说It is shining with snow. 但不能说Everywhere is shining with snow. Why?因为everywhere是副词，不能充当主语。 （2）主语必须能够承担谓语体现的动作。例如，不能

7、说My study fall behind.只能说I fell behind in my study. Why?因为在英语中只有人才能做出fell behind这个动作，而 “我的学习”这一表示范围领域的名词是无法承担这一动作的。,9,（3）英语的谓语必须包含一个真正的动词。其它语法成分必须与一个动词合在一起才能构成谓语。例如，汉语可说“小马广东人”。而英语必须说Xiao Ma is Cantonese. （4）如果谓语中有两个以上的动词出现，必须用“and”、“to”或逗号将它们隔开。例如: I came to give him this book. We opened the door,

8、checked the bomb and left the room. “and” 和逗号两边的动词将构成系列动作，“to”后面的动词则转为目的状语。有时也作宾语，如：I want to go to Paris.,10,根据使用目的，句子可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。 （二）按语法结构划分 按语法结构，句子可以分为简单句、并列句和复合句三类：1） 简单句（Simple Sentences）：只包含一个主谓结构，但可以有几个宾语、定语或状语。例如： She is fond of collecting stamps. ？ He and his brother went to town an

9、d bought a bike.,三、句子的种类（Sentence Types） （一）按使用目的划分,11,2）并列句（Compound Sentences）：包含两个或两个以上主谓结构的句子叫并列句，句与句之间通常用并列连词或分号来连接。此类并列连词包括以and为代表的表示意义延伸的连词、以or为代表的表示选择概念的连词、以but为代表的表示转折的连词和表示原因的for四个类型。第一种包括and, not onlybut (also ), neither (nor) 。第二种包括or, eitheror；第三种包括but, while, whereas等。第四种包括for，so，there

10、fore等。The food was good, but he had little appetite.It is raining; we shall not go out for a walk. Its going to rain，for the sky is dark.,12,3）复合句（Complex Sentences）：由两个或两个以上的有主谓结构的、用从属连词连接起来的句子。一般来说，主句表达主要意思，从句表达次要意思。从句尽管有主谓结构，但不能单独成为一个句子。在句中，从句可以充当全句的主语、宾语、表语或状语。如：The film had begun when we got to

11、 the cinema.Whether we go or not has not been decided.My idea is that we should help her.,13,复合句与并列句的区别,并列句用并列连词连接两个或两个以上的句子, 并表示句子与句子之间的关系。 复合句是一个完整的句子, 用连词连接的从句充当句子的某个成分。因此在区别复合句和并列句时,要特别注意并列连词的意思及其表示的关系。 复合句中必须出现从属的标志关联词(连接代词或连接副词、关系代词或关系副词、从属连词)，这是复合句区别于简单句和并列句的根本标志，是判断句子结构，确定动词形式的重要依据。例如：,14,判断

12、下面句子的类型。 1:Mary lay in bed，her face covered with a book. (无并列或从属的标志，故为简单句，covered是非谓语动词) 2：When Mary lay in bed，her face was covered with a book. (有从属标志，故为复合句，前一个句子做状语，后一个句子是主句，故lie和cover都用谓语动词的形式) 3：The earth has only one satellite and we call it the moon.,15,4.The Chinese didnt know about Europe b

13、efore Opium War. 5.Do you think that he did that on purpose? 6.Lift your head, Tom, and smile at me. 7.Taking a book from the bookcase, he sat on a chair and began to read. 8.I said nothing about it because of his wife being there. 9.Tom knew no one in the town before he settled down there. Key: 3:并

14、；4:简；5:复；6:并；7:简；8:简；9:复,16,（三）按修辞学划分 从修辞学的角度，句子可分为: loose sentence (松散句)和periodic sentence (圆周句/掉尾句) 1. A periodic sentence is one in which the main thought is not completed until the very end of the sentence. Often this type of sentence is more effective than one in which the main thought is given

15、 first, followed by one or more modifying clauses or phrases. 掉尾句就是中心意思放在句尾的句子。通俗地讲，“掉尾”即“吊胃口”，制造“悬念” （suspense），造成读者心理上的一种期待（anticipation），从而起到引人入胜、发人深思的作用。,17,2. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary（辅助的）information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the r

16、eader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. 中心意思放在句首，修饰语放在句尾。 例句: 1)Stop talking if you have nothing to say. If you have nothing to say, stop talking. 2) She refused his gift although it was very attractive. Although she found his gift very attractive, she refused to tak

17、e it.,18,3）Though Jim Thorpe had brought great glory to his nation, though thousands of people cheered him upon his return to the United States and attended banquets and a New York parade in his honor, he was not a citizen.,两个though引导的状语从句将Jim Thorpe的个人成就及美国人对他的欢迎程度推向了高潮。在这样的语境中，作者笔锋一转，he was not a

18、citizen为全句划上一个急切的句号。读者心理上在一刹那间经历了“期待悬念意外”的轨迹，不得不掩卷作叹。,19,There was a lamp burning on the table in the empty room and a little cat lying near the lamp. (loose sentence),试比较：,On the table burned a lamp in the empty room, and near it lay a little cat. (periodic sentence),对于初学写作的人来说，适当运用 periodic senten

19、ce，使之与 loose sentence 有机地结合，会为其习作增色不少。,20,四、常见错误（Common Errors）,中国学生的作文中病句总的概括起来有以下五种：串句；破句；错误的平行结构；修饰语错位；悬垂修饰语。此外还有中文式英语（Chinglish）、不一致(Disagreements)、词性误用(Misuse of Parts of Speech)、措词毛病(Troubles on Diction)、累赘（Redundancy）、不连贯 (Incoherence) 以及综合性语言错误（Comprehensive Misusage）。,21,I. 串句(Run-on Senten

20、ces) 串句就是错误地将两个独立的句子串在一起，不用连词或标点。串句有两种形式：一种是用一个逗号把两个独立的句子连接起来，被称为：comma splices。例： The local plant shut down for the holiday, as a result, everyone had two weeks off.。 另一种类型什么标点符号都没有使用。例： We walked over to the waterfall slowly then we sat down to admire the beauty of the falls.,22,修改串句有四种方法： (1)将其分成

21、两个句子 在两个句子之间插入句号和大写字母，这样串句就被分为两句完整句。例： （误）She didnt feel particularly well she went to bed. （正）She didnt feel particularly well. Therefore she went to bed. （误）He tried many times to give up smoking he never managed to. （正）He tried many times to give up smoking. However, he never managed to.,23,(2) 用

22、连词（and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet）连接两个句子，连词之前加逗号。例： （误）We walked over to the waterfall slowly then we sat down to admire the beauty of the falls. （正）We walked over to the waterfall slowly，and then we sat down to admire the beauty of the falls. （误）Dont tease the dog you might get bitten. （正） Dont te

23、ase the dog, or you might get bitten.,24,（3）用分号连接两个句子 使用分号来连接两个完整的意思，特别是两句之间使用表示连接意思的副词或副词词组，如however, instead, otherwise, whereas, in addition, furthermore, moreover, then, meanwhile, hence, therefore, thus等。 例： He tried many times to give up smoking; however, he never managed to. She didnt particu

24、larly well; therefore, she went to bed.,25,（4）用从属连词把一个分句化为从句，修饰或限定主句。例： After we walked over to the waterfall slowly, we sat down to admire the beauty of the falls. There is no school tomorrow, so they will go on a picnic. 要选择最佳的方法修改串句，首先选逗号加并列连词，用于两句之间有逻辑关系的句子；其次选择分号，用于两句中有表示连接关系的副词或副词词组时或后句是前句的说明时

25、；最后考虑句号，用于两句没有逻辑关系或角度表化等情况。,26,Faulty,It was raining hard, they could not work in the fields.,Correct,It was raining hard; they could not work in the fields. It was raining hard. They could not work in the fields. It was raining so hard that they could not work in the fields. Because it was raining

26、hard, they could not work in the fields. It was raining hard, so they could not work in the fields. As it was raining hard, they could not work in the fields.,27,II.残缺句、不完整句子：Fragmentary Sentences 残缺句结构不完整，实际上是将词当成句子或将从句当成句子。破句有几种类型：从属词破句，分词、不定式破句，附加细节句，无主破句及其他。 1dependent-word fragments (从属词破句) 1)

27、The earths temperature is rising. Because there is green-house effect. 改为：The earths temperature is rising because there is green-house effect. 2) Smokers claim the right to smoke in public places. While nonsmokers claim the right to clean air.,28,（正）Smokers claim the right to smoke in public places

28、, while nonsmokers claim the right to clean air. 2. added-detail fragments (增加细节引起的破句) especially, for example, such as, like, also, as well as, except, but, besides等词后接名词时不能单独存在，而只能是句子的部分。 1) I have visited many cities. For example, Beijing and Shanghai. 改为：I have visited many cities，for example，Be

29、ijing and Shanghai.,29,3. -ing and to fragments (分词和不定式破句) （误）Starting at the clock on the far wall. I nervously began my speech. （正） Starting at the clock on the far wall, I nervously began my speech. （误）I spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday. Trying to find a garage to repair my car. （正）I

30、 spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday, trying to find a garage to repair my car.,30,4.missing-subject fragments(缺少主语的破句) They take an active part in social activities. On holidays, frequently do temporary jobs. 改正:They take an active part in social activities, and on holidays, they frequent

31、ly do temporary jobs. 改正破句要根据具体情况而定，归根结底要判断句子的主谓宾是否完整，标点符号是否正确。改写时可将破句与其他部分合并，或添加缺少的成分，或去掉多余的词。 一般来说，破句尤其易出现在较长的句子中，要格外小心。,31,III. 不一致（Disagreements） 不一致包括主谓不一致、数的不一致、时态不一致、代词不一致和结构不一致等例1. He, together with his friends, have gone to the park. 例2. Advertising should be informative, persuasive, and of

32、 interest. 应改为： Advertising should be informative, persuasive, and interesting. 例3.Many a student have that kind of experience. 分析：many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。,32,例4. As a Chinese who dont speak English in daily life, we must try to speak them as much as possible. 改为：As a Chinese who

33、 doesnt speak English in daily life, he must try to speak as much . 例5. He wrote very quickly and soon his essay was finished. 改为：He wrote very quickly and soon finished his essay. 例6. And we can also know the society by serving it yourself. 改为：We can also know society by serving it ourselves.,33,判断

34、正误： 例7:What I want is a notebook and a pen. 例8：Not only I but also Tom is angry with Jim. 例9:Everybody in the room have been sitting there in silence. 例10:Ten minutes is a long time for us to wait. Ten minutes have passed since we came. 例11.Two thirds of the accidents are due to drives carelessness.

35、 Most of the snow has melted.,34,IV. Faulty Parallelism：错误平行结构 Non- Parallelism ：不平衡 平行结构是运用类似的文法形式表示相同或相近意念的一种写作技巧。具有以下特点： 1平行结构是把两个以上意思并列的成分用同等的语法形式表达出来。如果意思上并列的成分用不同等的语法形式来表达，就破坏了其平行结构。 2平行结构是一种有效的表达思想的手段，它使句子整齐、对称、流畅，使语意贯通，富有节奏感。 3平行结构可以是单词、词组、从句也可以是句子。,35,1）词与词间的平行： A wedding anniversary is a c

36、elebration of love, trust, partnership, and tolerance. 2）词组间的平行： Thats one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. 3）分句间的平行： He paid more attention to what he ate than to what he wore. 4）句子间的平行： Militarily, Great Britain was shockingly weak in 1941. Socially, however, the country was surpr

37、isingly strong.,36,改正错误的平行结构： （误）Kate has been a waitress, a nurse and taught school. （正）Kate has been a waitress, a nurse and a teacher.(此句中的每个平行成分都应是名词。) （误）The governor is facing the difficult task of developing industry but how to not destroy the environment. （正）The governor is facing the diffic

38、ult task of developing industry but not destroying the environment.（平行成分为动名词短语）,37,（误）Recent movies reflect major improvements in not only photograph but also in editing. （正）Recent movies reflect major improvements not only in photograph but also in editing.（平行成分为动名词短语） （误）Jane is a beautiful and th

39、e most kindest woman I have never met. （正）Jane is the most beautiful and the most kindest woman I have never met.,38, (误)Mars is nearer to us than Pluto(冥王星). （正）Mars is nearer to us than Pluto is. than前为句子，后为单个词，所以造成句子的不平衡。在写比较级的句子时，一定要注意 than两侧的文法结构是否一致。 （误）The math teacher not only irritates me b

40、y his high-pitched voice, but also I began to hate the math class. （正）The math teacher not only irritates me by his high-pitched voice, but also makes me hate the math class.,39,V. Misplaced Parts（错位） 错位是指英语中的修饰、限定语由于放置的位置不恰当而造成的语意模糊现象。为避免错位，修饰语要和被修饰、限定的部分尽量靠近。 1）The newsboy walked his bicycle to th

41、e house of his first customer burdened with newspapers. burdened with newspapers 是用来修饰newsboy而非customer。应改为： The newsboy burdened with newspapers walked his bicycle to the house of his first customer.,40,2） Alice could see a lot of cars running fast outside through her window. through her window为表示方

42、式的状语，应放在句首，尽管离它所修饰的动词see远些，但一般不会有歧义。 改为：Through her window Alice could see a lot of cars running fast outside. 3）The idea he mentioned at first sounded good. 改为： The idea he first mentioned sounded good. or: The idea he mentioned sounded good at first.,41,3）He gave the rose to the lovely actress tha

43、t he had bought for his wife. that he had bought for his wife 是用来修饰、限定the rose.为了避免歧义，此句可改为：He gave the rose that he had bought for his wife to the lovely actress. 改正错位的方法： 1.当使用像only, just, almost, nearly这样的修饰语时，尽量让它们靠近被修饰语，且一般放在被修饰语前面。例如：,42,(1)Just he suggested that we leave early. 正是他建议我们该早点离开。

44、(2) He just suggested that we leave early. 他只提了我们该早点走的建议。 (3) He suggested just that we leave early. 他没提别的建议，只是提了我们该早点离开这一条。 (4) He suggested that just we leave early. 他的建议只是让我们而不是别人该早点走。 (5) He suggested that we just leave early. 他建议我们做的只是早点走，而不是做别的事。,43,又如： (1)Only I asked the girl for her name. 只

45、有我问了姑娘的名字。 (2)I asked only the girl for her name. 我只是问了那位姑娘的名字。 (3) I asked the only girl for her name. 我问了唯一的一位姑娘的名字。 (4) I asked the girl for her name only. 我只问了姑娘的名字。 从上述例句可以看出修饰词与被修饰词靠近原则。由于修饰词与其被修饰词位置的变动，整个句子的意思不尽相同。,44,2.表示时间，地点，方式的状语从句放在句首，尽管离它们所修饰的词远些，但一般不会有歧义。偶尔以这种方式展开句子，避免了太多的以主语开头的句子，使人有一

46、种新鲜感。 3.以which或that开头的从句，要跟在被修饰的词后面。例： The house was in the woods that burned last night. 这里人们就产生疑问。是林子被烧了，还是房子被烧了；还是林子与房子一起化为灰烬了？ 改为：The house that burned last night was in the woods.,45,4. 当状语修饰语难以在句中找到恰当的位置时，句首往往是个好地方。例： The mayor was able to cut the ribbon and then the band played when someone f

47、ound scissors. (动作顺序违反自然规律) 改为：When someone found scissors, the mayor was able to cut the ribbon and then the band played. 5.不要把修饰语放在可以修饰句中两个部分的位置上，以避免句子意思模棱两可。例：,46,People who walk normally are healthier than those who dont. 此句中，normally 一词如果修饰walk, 句意就可以理解为“能够正常走路的人比那些不能正常走路的人更健康”。但是若normally 一词修饰

48、healthier, 句意就可以理解为“能够走路的人一般比那些不能走路的人更健康”为避免这种“一句多意”的歧义现象，可将此句改为： People who walk are normally healthier than those who dont.或Normally, people who walk are healthier than those who dont.,47,VI. Dangling Modifiers (悬垂修饰语) 悬垂修饰语是作修饰语的短语或省略从句（没有主语或谓语，或主、谓语全无的从句），逻辑上与它所修饰的词语分离，或找不到逻辑上被修饰的对象。常见的悬垂修饰语有以下五

49、种： （1）悬垂分词短语 一般来讲，分词结构如果出现在句首，通常是以句子的主语作为自己的主语的。如果一种分词结构无法确定其逻辑主语，就会引起悬垂修饰语。 （误） When bathing the baby, the water should be warm, not hot.,48,（正）When bathing the baby, you should be sure the water should be warm, not hot. （2）垂悬动名词 （误）In talking with my students, they told me of their suggestions. （正

50、）When I was talking with my students, they told me of their suggestions. （3）垂悬不定式短语 误： To pass the exam, work hard is expected. 正：To pass the exam, you are expected to work hard.,49,（4）垂悬介词短语 （误） After reading the letter, my heart was beating fast. （正）After reading the letter, I found my heart beati

51、ng fast. （5）垂悬省略从句 （误）Although only a small boy, my father expected me to do a mans work. （正）Although I was only a small boy, my father expected me to do a mans work.,50,改正悬垂修饰语的方法： 1找出隐含的主语，即动作的实施者，使主语成为垂悬部分所修饰的对象； （误） After three hours of practice, a large mug of beer was what the thirsty dancers

52、wanted. （正）After three hours of practice, the thirsty dancers wanted a large mug of beer. 2.把垂悬短语或省略从句扩展为完整的从句。 （误）While eating my cake, five mosquitoes bit me. （正）While I was eating my cake, five mosquitoes bit me. （正）While eating my cake, I was bitten by five mosquitoes.,51,NOTICE There are a few

53、set phrases often used to modify whole sentences, like to be frank , generally speaking , judging by , and speaking of , etc. They look like dangling modifiers but they are not. Judging by what the newspaper have said, his latest play is quite successful. To be frank, he is not the right man for this important job.,52,Exercise: 1：