Chapter 3 lexicon新.ppt

1、Chapter 3 lexicon3.1 what is word 3.2 the formation of word 3.3 lexical change,3.1 What is word,3.1.1 Three senses of “word” Word is a unit of expression that native-speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form. This definition is a bit vague. In fact, it is hard to define

2、“word” in the scientific sense. Nevertheless, it is agreed that three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which, is satisfactory to cope with all the situations (these three definitons cannot cover everything).,3.1 What is word,1) a physically definable unit 自然的有界限的单位 Word may be seen as

3、 a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks. 两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群. Phonological: 音系上: Orthographic: 书写上: It is wonderful. In casual speech or writing: its wonderful. There are three words in each case. But in casual speech or writing, one would express the same idea in

4、the following ways:,3.1 What is word,Phonological: 音系上: Orthographic: 书写上: Its wonderful. Problem: when liaison连音 and contracted form缩写式 occur, should they identified as three words or two words?,3.1 What is word,2) word both as a general term and as a specific term When faced with a set of nouns, s

5、uch as boy and boys, or a set of verbs, such as check, checks, checked, checking, they are recognized as two words and four words respectively. Word may be used as a general term( boy and boys are just one word) and specific term( boy and boys are two words).,3.1 What is word,3) a grammatical unit A

6、s is shown in the following hierarchical scale. Language presents itself as a hierarchy in different respects, it rises from morpheme at the bottom up the clause complex at the top. Clause complex 小句复合体, 复句 Clause 小句 Word group/ phrase 词组/短语 Word 词 Morpheme 词素 Word is a rank 级 between morpheme and w

7、ord group.,3.1 What is word,3.1.2 identification of words There are other factors which may help mus identify words 1) stability: words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, that is, it is hard for us to rearrange the internal structure of a complex wor

8、d into a different order, If the morphemes are rearranged as manchair, nessnothing, they are unacceptable words in English. But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents or parts in a sentence. The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. John is a clever boy.

9、 A clever boy John is.,3.1 What is word,2) relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性 We mean here new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disppointment. In contrast, one can add “Jane” in th

10、e coordinating subject of the following sentence. Paus, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.,3.1 What is word,3) a minimum free form 最小的自由形式 It was first fuggested by Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “ the maximum free form” and word “ the minimum free form”, the latter being the small

11、est unit that can constitute by iteslef a complete utterance能构成完整语句的最小单位. Is Jane coming this evening? Possibly. Expressions such as Hi, Darling, Bother may function in the same way.,3.1 What is word,3.1.3 classification of words Although we can generalize some common features of words, we can also

12、find this or that difference among various words. 1) variable and invariable words 可变化词和不变词 One can find ordered and regular整齐而有规则的 series of grammatically different word form. Follow follows following followed Mat mats Variable words may have inflective changes. invariable words do not have inflect

13、ive endings屈折变化. Since when seldom through,3.1 What is word,2) Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词 和词汇词 The words which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex or even text are grammatical words. (express grammatical meanings). Such as conjunctions, prepositions, artic

14、les and pronouns are grammatical words. Also called function words功能词, because they serve to link its different parts together. The words which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are lexical words. Also called content words实义词, be

15、cause they carry the main content of a language.,3.1 What is word,3) Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词 A word whose membership is fixed or limited is called the closed-class word. New members are not regularly added. Pounouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are called clo

16、sed items. A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions or discoveries emerge, new expressions are constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.,3.1 What is word,In fact, the di

17、stinction between closed-class words and open-class words is not quite as clearcut as it seems. Proposition, though a closed-class is a relatively open one in English. Regarding, thoughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of , by means of are now recongnized as prepositions or complex

18、 prepositions复合介词. In respect of open-class items,auxiliary verbs which used to be treated as open-classs words, are relatively closed in mumber.,3.1 What is word,4) word class 词类 (close to Parts of Speech) Based on the Latin or Greek tradition, nine word classes are established, such as noun, prono

19、un adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjfection感叹词 and article. Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammar. Particles: 语助词,小品词 the infinitive marker “to”, the negative marker “not , the subordinate units in phrasal verbs: get by, do up, look back. Auxiliarie

20、s 助动词: Used to be regarded as verbs. Linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class, owning to their unique properties in negation, inversion, code and emphasis. Is can will has,3.1 What is word,Pro-form 代词形式: Pronoun is the only word class which can function as a substitute for anothe

21、r norminal group or a single noun. Pro-adjective : You pen is red. So is mine. Pro-verb : He knows English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes hell win and I hope so too. Pro-locative代处所词: He is hiding there, behind the door. Determiners: 限定词 It refers to words which are used before the noun ac

22、ting as head of noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. The a an some all,3.1 What is word,According to Quirk, there are three subclasses of determiners: predeterminers前置限定词 all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-fifth. certraldeterminers中置限定词 the definite and

23、 indefintie articles. the, a, an, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no , either, my, his, their. postdeterminers后置限定词. The cardinal numerals基数词, ordinal numerals序数词, the general ordinals顺序词 like next, last, past, another additional. Other quantifiers数量词 like many, several, much , a l

24、ot of, a great deal of .,3.1 What is word,When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of predeterminers + central determiners + postdepterminers. Their all trouble, five the all boys all their trouble, all the five boys. Within each sub-class, the numbers are usua

25、ly exclusive of each other. All both girls But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals, the first two days, another three weeks.,3.2 The Formation of Word,3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morpheme: some words may be analyzed into smaller components. Chairman is made up

26、of chair and man, boys is mad up of boy and -s, checking is made up of check and ing. Disappointment is made up of dis, -appoint, -ment. The smaller conponents are called morphemes. It is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be div

27、ided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。,3.2 The Formation of Word,The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called Morphology形态学, which studies the inte

28、rnal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Amplify purify simplify electrify falsify We can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule.,3.2 The Formation of Word,In fact every word in every language is compose

29、d of one or more morphemes. One morpheme: girl, care two morphemes: girl+ish, care+less three morphemes: girl+ish+ness, care+less+ness four morphemes: in+consider+able+ness five morphemes: un+except+ion+able+ness, un+gentle+man+li+ness, un+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism(7),3.2 The Formation of Word,3

30、.2.2 Types of morphemes: Free morpheme 自由语素and bound morpheme粘着语素: in terms of their capacity of occurring alone. Morphemes can be classified into two types. Those which may occur alone, those which may make up words by themselves are free morphemes. Dog nation Such words are called mono-morphemic w

31、ords.,3.2 The Formation of Word,Moreover, there are poly-morphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds复合词, suchas moonwalk, babysit, sunflower. In contrast, -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis in disclose can not occur alone. They must appear with at least another mor

32、pheme, and are called bound morphemes粘着语素. Distempered has three morphemes: dis, temper, ed .,3.2 The Formation of Word,Root词根 affix 词缀and stem 词干 Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots an d affixes. A root: is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed with

33、out destroying its meaning. In other words, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Inter nation al ism .,3.2 The Formation of Word,All words contain a root morpheme. Affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme

34、 (the root or stem) 只能附加于另一个语素. So affix is naturally bound. Affixes are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix前缀, suffix and后缀 infix中缀. un dis mini ise ify tion foot/feet, goose/geese A root may be free or bound. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base

35、forms of words such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith.,3.2 The Formation of Word,However, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as ceive in receive, perceive and conceive. mit in remit, permit, submit. tain in retain contain maintain. cur in incur recur

36、occur. A few roots may have both free and bound variants. Sleep and child are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the slept child- in children are bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合. Friend in friends, friendship

37、 in friendships,3.2 The Formation of Word,Inflectional affix屈折词缀 and derivational affix派生词缀 Inflectional affixes are generally less productiove than derivational affixed, they very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem. Toys, walks, Johns. Derivational affixes are very

38、 productive in making new words. Tion, al, ness. It can change the lexical meaning. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, flowers,3.2 The Formation of Word,3.2.3 Inflection and Word Formation There are two fields that Morphology is concerned with: inflectional

39、 Morphology (the study of inflections) and lexical or derivational Morphology(the study of word-formation). Inflection: it indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case; and when inflectiona affixes are added, the grammatical cals

40、s of the stems( to which they are attached) will not change. Tables talk/talks talking/ talked Johns,3.2 The Formation of Word,Word formation, in its restricted sense, 从严格意义上讲refers to the process of word variations signalling lexical relatioships. It can be subclassified into the compositional type

41、( compound)复合词and derivational type(derivation).派生词 Compound: On the whole, it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, callgirl,windmill verb compounds: brainwash

42、, lipread, babysit adjective compounds: maneating, heartfelt, dutyfree preposition compounds: into throughout,3.2 The Formation of Word,compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric(向心复合词) compounds and the exocentric(离心复合词) compounds. Endocentric compounds: the head of a nominal

43、or adjectival endocentric compound is derived from a verb, consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. 名词性向心复合词和形容词性向心复合词是从动词派生出来的,因此也叫动词性复合词或综合复合词.Self-control, core meaning, sun-tanned, bullet-resistant, machine washable.,3.2 The Formation of Word,Exocentric compound

44、s: the exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, V+P playboy, get-together, breakthrough; whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A : lackluster暗淡的、无光泽的, beat-up破旧的, walk-in未经预约而来的. Compounds are written in different ways. Some can be written as a single word, seashore dayli

45、ght. Some can be joined with a hyphen, wedding-ring, simple-minded. Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts wedding breakfast, washing machine.,3.2 The Formation of Word,Derivation: it shows the relation between roots and affixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can

46、make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. Word class changed: n-v: lengthen, hospitalize, unhorse, discard n-adj: foolish, beastly, delightful, speechless N-adj/adv: clockwise,earthward v-n: worker, payee, inhabitant v-adj: acceptable, adorable adj-n: meanness, rapidity,3

47、.2 The Formation of Word,adj-v: deafen, sweeten adj-adv: exactly, quickly word class unchanged: n-n: nonsmoker, profiteer, booklet v-v: disobey, undo adj-adj: tallish, illogical Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. 通过派生方式生成的形式,其数量是相当多的,潜力是开放的.In English, there is

48、usually one productive inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixes are allowed. 每个单词一般只有一个生成性的屈折词缀,但允许有多个派生词缀. joyfulness,3.2 The Formation of Word,3.2.4 Sememe vs. morpheme and Phoneme vs. Morpheme Sememe义素 vs. morpheme语素 Sememe is the smallest component of meaning. The morpheme

49、has only one sememe: plurality. One morpheme vs. sememe One morpheme has only one sememe. -less has just one sememe without as in : fearless careless ceasless doubtless,3.2 The Formation of Word,One morpheme vs. more than one sememe One morpheme may have two or more than two sememes, such as a- . It

50、 has three sememes, as in arise, await, enhancing the meaning of the original senses rise and wait. Awash and ablush: a changes both the semantic and the grammatical categories of wash and blush. Atypical and asymmetry: a means no or non.,3.2 The Formation of Word,One smeme vs. more than one morphem

51、e There are other morphemes besides a- that also indicate the sememe of no or non, as il- in illicit, un- in untidy, ne- in neither. Morphemes that have no specific sememe There are some morphemes, such as en-, that has no specific sememe,but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. Enjo

52、y, the new word differs from the original one both in the sememe of quality vs event and in the form of adjectives vs. verb.,3.2 The Formation of Word,Morpheme and phoneme语素和音位 A phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in grammar, is there any

53、correspondence一致性 between the twlo levels of language? Morphophonology( Morphonology) or Morphophonemics(Morphonemics) 形态音系学/ 形态音位学 it is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms, and correspondingly, the morpholo

54、gical factors that affect the phoneme forms. So it studies the interrelatiohships between phology and morphology.,3.2 The Formation of Word,a single phoneme vs. single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. The phoneme /z/ in goes represents the third-

55、person singular present tense morpheme, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme. Boys the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in boys it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. However, in raise is means nothing at all.,3.2 The Formatio

56、n of Word,A single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme. The following examples show that they may be monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic. Monophonemic: dogs monosyllabic: lovely Polysyllabic: tobacco. Allomorph

57、: 语素变体 Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog” “bark” “wall”etc. in other instances there may be considerable variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. Such as morpheme that expresses plurality in English. Maps dogs watches mice oxen teeth s

58、heep.,3.2 The Formation of Word,From the examples, one can see clearly that the plural sememe in Englsih can be represented by the voiceless/s/ the voiced/z/, the vowel-consonant structrure/ iz/, the diphthong /ai/, the nasal sound /n/ , the long vowel /i:/, an the zero form /o/ and others. Each wou

59、ld be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme. In morphemic transcription, morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces like. Take the plural morpheme for example, it can be expressed in the form of -s-z -iz -ai -i: -n-o it is to be noted that some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have different sememes. s can express plurality (apples), person/finiteness (talks) and case (boys).,3.2 The Formation of Word,Phonologically conditioned The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors. Injustice Ineff